Showing papers in "Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry in 1997"

Uranium(VI) speciation by spectroscopy

Abstract: The application of UV-Vis and time-resolved laser-induced fluorescence (TRLF) spectroscopies to direct speciation of uranium(VI) in environmental samples offers various prospects that have, however, serious limitations. While UV-Vis spectroscopy is probably not sensitive enough to detect uranium(VI) species in the majority of environmental samples, TRLFS is principially able to speciate uranium(VI) at very low concentration levels in the nanomol range. Speciation by TRLFS can be based on three parameters: excitation spectrum, emission spectrum and lifetime of the fluorescence emission process. Due to quenching effects, the lifetime may not be expected to be as characteristic as, e.g., the emission spectrum. Quenching of U(VI) fluorescence by reaction with organic substances, inorganic ions and formation of carbonate radicals is one important limiting factor in the application of U(VI) fluorescence spectroscopy. Fundamental photophysical criteria are illustrated using UV-Vis and fluorescence spectra of U(VI) hydrolysis and carbonato species as examples.

Redox speciation of plutonium

Abstract: Knowledge of the oxidation state distribution of plutonium in natural waters is necessary in modeling its behavior in environmental systems. The redox speciation of plutonium is complicated by such effects as hydrolysis, complexation, disproportionation, solubility, and redox interchange reactions. The insolubility of Pu(OH)4 is often the limiting factor of the net solubility of plutonium in oxic natural waters where Pu(V)O 2 + is the most stable oxidation state. Perturbations to the oxidation state speciation due to the complexation chemistry of the different oxidation states of plutonium and to the insolubility of plutonium(IV) in neutral aquatic systems are discussed. The merits and limitations of some chemical separation techniques used to study redox speciation of plutonium are presented, and recommendations made for obtaining reliable oxidation state distribution data.

Composite sorbents of inorganic ion-exchangers and polyacrylonitrile binding matrix: I. Methods of modification of properties of inorganic ion-exchangers for application in column packed beds

Abstract: Methods of preparation of granules of inorganic ion exchangers as well as methods for improvement of granular strength of these materials are reviewed. The resulting ion exchangers are classified in three groups—“intrinsic”, supported and composite ion exchangers. Their properties are compared and possibilities of their technological application are evaluated. A new method of preparation of inorganic-organic composite sorbents of inorganic ion-exchangers and polyacrylonitrile binding matrix is described, advantages and disadvantages of such sorbents are discussed. Proposed fields of application include tratment of liquid radioactive and/or hazardous wastes, decontamination of natural water as well as analytical applications.

Introducing HYPERMET-PC for automatic analysis of complex gamma-ray spectra

Abstract: In short time activation analysis prompt gamma-activation analysis and in high rate γ-ray spectroscopy in general, the shape parameters for peaks and back ground usually vary, rendering spectrum evaluation codes based on a fixed shape calibration unsuitable. An interactive version of the well-known, fully automatic γ-ray spectrum analysis code HYPERMET has been developed in C ++ for the IBM-PC. It runs under MS-DOS, in conventional memory, and can handle up to 16k-channel spectra, recorded with CANBERRA's System 100 and AccuSpec and with ORTEC's ACE plug-in MCA cards. A Windows-like graphics environment is provided with mouse controlled pull-down menus, pop-up windows and rubber band expansion. All basic features of HYPERMET such as fully automatic peak search, nonlinear fitting of multiplets with automatically adjusted Gaussian peak widths exponential tails and a complex background function have been retained. All details of the fitting procedure are recorded in a data base, hence any fitted region can be retrieved and modified interactively, even after a fully automatic spectrum evaluation. The program also provides an output peak list in SAMPO90 format for further processing. The latter format is widely used in a number of sample analysis programs such as KAYZERO a software package fork 0 standardization in neutron activation analysis.

Stability of the valinomycin-rubidium complex in water saturated nitrobenzene

Abstract: From the extraction experiments and γ-activity measurements, the extraction constant corresponding to the Rb+(aq)+CsL+(nb)⇆RbL+(nb)+Cs+(aq) equilibrium in the two-phase water-nitrobenzene system (L=valinomycin; aq=aqueous phase, nb=nitrobenzene phase) was evaluated in the form logKex (Rb+, CsL+)=09 Further, the stability constant of the valinomycin-rubidium complex in nitrobenzene saturated with water was calculated as log βnb(RbL+)=117

The solubility of struvite

Abstract: The solubility of magnesium-ammonium-phosphate (struvite) has been studied employing radioisotope32P as tracer. The amount of sample in solution is determined by measuring the Cherenkov radiation due to the fast β-particles emitted from this radionuclide. The themodynamic solubility product is determined at various temperatures and compared with former results.

Combined procedure for the determination of90Sr,241Am and Pu radionuclides in soil samples

Abstract: A combined procedure for sequential determination of low level activity concentrations of90Sr,241Am and Pu radionuclides is described. The analysis of α-emitters is performed by isotope dilution α-spectrometry using242Pu or236Pu and243Am tracers. Strontium-90 is analyzed by liquid scintillation counting using the double energetic windows method. The method combines the well established, procedure for Pu analysis based on anion exchange, the powerful and selective method for Sr isolation based on extraction chromatography using Sr-Spec resin and finally it includes the application of the TRU-Spec column for separation and purification of the Am fraction. The radiochemical procedure was tested using IAEA reference and intercomparison materials. Major parameters of the procedure as well as advantages and drawbacks are discussed in detail.

Advantages of low-background liquid scintillation alpha-spectrometry and pulse shape analysis in measuring222Rn, uranium and226Ra in groundwater samples

Abstract: Liquid scintillation counting (LSC) and pulse shape analysis (PSA) was used in measuring radon and gross alpha- and beta-activities in groundwater. We used conventional LSC counters for the measurement of radon in water, but low-background LSC spectrometers for the gross activity measurements. The lower limit of detection (LLD) for radon in water is 0.6 Bq/l for a 60 min count with a conventional counter, but 0.1 or 0.2 Bq/l, with the two types of low-background LSC spectrometers equipped with a pulse shape analyser (PSA). The gross alpha and beta activity measurements are made using a simple sample preparation method, PSA of a low background LSC and spectrum analysis. The LLD recorded for gross alpha and beta with the two spectrometers are 0.02 and 0.03 Bq/l and 0.2 and 0.4 Bq/l, respectively, for a 180 minutes count and a 38 ml sample volume. The method also enable the calculation of the U and226Ra contents in water and indicates the presence of some other long-lived radionuclides (210Pb,228Ra or40K). The LLD for U recorded with both spectrometers is 0.02 Bq−1 and for226Ra 0.01 Bq·1−1. The LLDs attained by this LSC method are two orders of magnitude lower than the maximum permissible concentrations set for U and226Ra.

Determination of the contents and distribution characteristics of REE in natural plants by NAA

Abstract: The concentration of 8 REEs (La, Ce, Nd, Sm, Eu, Tb, Yb and Lu) in 17 species of plants and their host soil, which were collected from a rare earth ore area located in the south of China, have been determined by INAA. The chondritic normalized REE patterns for different parts of plants (e.g., leaf stem and root) and their host soils were studied. The results showed that the concentration levels of REE for most plants in the sampling area were elevated. Particularly, the leaves of the fern (Dicranopteris dichotoma) contain extremely high concentration of the total REE (675–3358 μg/g) Generally, these REE distribution patterns in every part of plants were very similar and reflected the characteristics of their host soils. However, the chondritic normalized REE patterns in some plants relative to the host soil revealed obvious fractionation, such as the depletion of the heavy REE (for fernCitrus reticulata andBrassia campestris), the heavy REE enrichment (forCamellia sinensis, Camellia oleifera andZiziphus) and the Ce positive anomaly (forGardenia jasminoides).

A search for losses of chemical elements during freeze-drying of biological materials

Abstract: Possible losses of seven chemical elements were investigated in biological tissues during freeze-drying in vacuum. Thyroid glands were taken during post-mortem examination of 23 people died of different diseases. Instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) was used to estimate contents of Br, Ca, Cl, I, K, Mg, and Na. The nuclear reator vertical channel with flux density of 1.2·1013n·cm−2·s−1 was used for neutron irradiation. The analysis was carried out using short-lived radionuclides induced in samples after neutron irradiation. Then thyroids were freeze-dried at below 0 °C in vaccum up to the constant mass (lyophilisation) and then homogenized. Samples of lyophilised and homogenized tissues were again studied by INAA. The lack of difference between the results of the analysis before and after lyophilisation is an evedence of no loss of Br, Ca, Cl, I, K, Mg and Na during freeze-drying of biotissues in vaccum.

Pre-concentration of actinide elements from soils and large volume water samples using extraction chromatography

Abstract: The analysis of environmental samples for low levels of U, Pu, Am and other actinide elements is often hampered by sample-dependent problems involving the composition and/or mineralogy of specific samples. While relatively small samples (1–2 g of soil or 1–2 of water) are required to reach the extremely low detection limits occasionally mandated for environmental monitoring. One approach to avoid the troublesome and often inexplicable problems collectively referred to as “matrix effects” is to pre-concentrate actinides into a common form that would then behave uniformly and predictably during a subsequent separation scheme. Recently, a new extraction chromatographic resin based on diphosphonate chemistry was developed at Argonne National Laboratory. This resin commercialized as Eichrom's Actinide Resin, exhibits extremely high affinity for actinide elements even in the presence of high concentrations of salts. We have measured the uptake of actinides by the Dipex® extractant from natural waters and natural matrix soil standards. Water samples have been analyzed for gross α-activities and gave results that compared favorably to the traditional approach. In addition, we have obtained good recoveries and excellent separations for soil samples as judged by resolution on the α-spectra and the complete absence of interfering energies.

Bio-monitoring of trace-element air pollution in Portugal: Qualitative survey

Abstract: During the months of July and August 1993 a lichen collection campaign was held in Portugal where about 250 samples were collected and analysed by thick target TIPIXE and INAA. Results for 44 different elements were obtained and a data base was built and subjected to Monte Carlo Aided Target Transform Factor Analysis (MCATTFA), a method developed at IRI (Delft). 10×10 km2 coast and 50×50 km2 far from coast sampling grids were used for collection. In this work we will present the results which were obtained based on a reduced data set of 36 elements measured by INAA. The results for 22 elements obtained by TTPIXE were published elsewhere. In this work we will also present the conclusions considering all the 44 elements determined by both techniques.

Di(2-ethyl hexyl) butyramide and di(2-ethyl hexyl)isobutyramide as extractants for uranium(vi) and plutonium(iv)

Abstract: The extraction of uranium(VI) and plutonium(IV) from nitric acid into n-dodecane was studied using two isomeric branched alkyl amides, di(2-ethyl hexyl) butyramide (DEHBA) and di(2-ethyl hexyl) isobutyramide (DEHIBA) The extraction ratios of Pu(IV) at relatively high acidities were higher than the corresponding values for U(VI) in the case of DEHBA However, with DEHIBA the values for Pu(IV) were negligibly small Pu(IV) was found to be extracted as trisolvate by DEHBA and as disolvate by DEHIBA U(VI) was extracted by both the amides From the study of the extraction reactions at different temperatures, it was shown that all the reactions in the present investigation were enthalpy favoured and entropy disfavoured Separation of Pu(IV) from bulk of U(VI) was feasible However, the purity of the separated plutonium was not satisfactory in batch extraction studies

The dietary intake of238U,234U,230Th,232Th,228Th and226Ra from food and drinking water by inhabitants of the Walbrzych region

Abstract: Intake with food and water of the natural radionuclides of the uranium and thorium series was determined for adult population of the south-western region in Poland, where in the 1950-ies an exploration of uranium ore was conducted. Concentration of the radionuclides was determined in food products and drinking water and their annual intake was estimated on the basis of the average annual consumption. The intake of238U,234U and230Th occurred mainly with water (33% to 68%), whereas the intake of232Th,228Th and226Ra was mainly with vegetables, potatoes, milk and flour. From the intake and dose coefficients the annual effective doses from the ingested radionuclides were calculated. The total dose was 5.6 μSv, of which 74% originated from226Ra.

Cold neutron prompt gamma-ray activation analysis at NIST — Recent developments

Abstract: The cold neutron capture prompt γ-ray activation analysis (CNPGAA) spectrometer located in the Cold Neutron Research Facility (CNRF) at NIST has proven useful for the analysis of hydrogen and other elements in a wide variety of materials. Modifications of the instrument and the CNRF have resulted in improved measurement capabilities for PGAA. The addition of an atmosphere-controlled sample chamber and Compton suppression have reduced γ-ray background and increased signal-to-noise ratio. More recent revisions are expected to yield still further improvement in analytical capabilities. Replacement of the D2O ice cold source with a liquid H2 moderator is expected to yield a 5–10 fold increase in neutron capture rate, and improved neutron and γ-ray shielding will result in further reduction of the background. Other modifications to the instrument allow easier sample mounting and more precise positioning of samples in the neutron beam. Significant improvements in detection limits and analytical accuracy are expected.

Determination of radium isotopes by BaSO4 coprecipitation for the preparation of alpha-spectrometric sources

Abstract: A coprecipitation procedure for the preparation of α-spectrometric sources for radium, using BaSO4 as carrier, has been applied to the determination of alpha radium isotopes in water samples The use of133Ba as a suitable tracer for radium determination and possible losses of radon isotopes from the sources are studied and discussed

Zinc in human prostate gland: normal, hyperplastic and cancerous

Abstract: Zinc concentration in a prostate gland is much higher than that in other human tissues. Data about zinc changes for different prostate diseases are limited and greatly contradictory. Zinc content was determined for biopsy and resected materials of transrectal puncture tissues from benign prostate hyperplasia (BPH) and prostate cancer. There were 109 patients (50 BPH and 59 cancer) available for the present study. Control group consisted of 37 intact glands of men died an unexpected death (accident, murder, acute cardiac insufficiency, etc.). All materials studied were divided into two parts. One of them was morphologically examined, while another one was subjected to zinc analysis by INAA. Zinc contents (M±SE) of normal, benign hyperplastic and cancerous prostate glands were found to be 1018±124, 1142±77, and 146±10 μg/g dry tissue, respectively. It was shown that zinc assessments in the materials of transrectal puncture biopsy of indurated prostate sites can be used as an additional test for differential diagnostics of BPH and cancer. Accuracy, sensitivity and specificity of the test are 98±2%.

The new prompt gamma-activation analysis facility at budapest

Abstract: Prompt gamma-activation analysis (PGAA) is an important complementary technique to conventional instrumental activation analysis that can be successfully used in a number of cases when INAA is not applicable. Therefore, a PGAA facility has been constructed at the recently refurbished and upgraded Budapest Research Reactor. It occupies the end position of a new curved themal guide of 30 m length and 2.5×10 cm2 cross section which provides a clean beam of low energy neutrons. The sophisticated HPGe-BGO γ-ray spectrometer system can be operated in Compton-suppression and pair-spectrometer modes simultaneously. The octal splitting of the main BGO improves efficient pair mode operation when coincidences between pairs of opposite segments and the HPGe detector are required separately. Gamma-gamma coincidence measurements will also be possible when the new multiparameter data acquisition system is completed. One of the main tasks at the new facility will be the accumulation of new spectroscopic data for detector calibration and standardisation, as well as for the construction of a more accurate prompt γ-ray library for the chemical elements. Various applications are planned, such as the determination of hydrogen in fullerenes and of toxic trace elements in environmental samples.

Elemental analysis of some herbal plants used in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases by NAA and AAS

Abstract: Elemental analysis of some herbal plants used in the ayurveda for curing of cardiovascular diseases has been performed using the techniques of neutron activation analysis and atomic absorption spectroscopy. The concentration of elements Mn, Na, K and Cl has been estimated by NAA using a252Cf neutron source and a high purity gemanium detector coupled to a multichannel analyzer, while the elements Ca, Cr, Co, Cu, Fe, Pb, Zn, Ni, Cd and Hg were analysed by AAS using a Perkin Elmer 3100 instrument.

Determination of the elemental distribution in cigarette components and smoke by instrumental neutron activation analysis

Abstract: Cigarette smoking is a major source of particles released in indoor environments. A comprehensive study of the elemental distribution in cigarettes and cigarette smoke has been completed. Specifically, concentrations of thirty elements have been determined for the components of 15 types of cigarettes. Components include tobacco, ash, butts, filters, and cigarette paper. In addition, particulate matter from mainstream smoke (MS) and sidestream smoke (SS) were analyzed. The technique of elemental determination used in the study is instrumental neutron activation analysis. The results show that certain heavy metals, such as As, Cd, K, Sb and Zn, are released into the MS and SS. These metals may then be part of the health risk of exposure to smoke. Other elements are retained, for the most part, in cigarette ash and butts. The elemental distribution among the cigarette components and smoke changes for different smoking conditions.

Angle : a pc-code for semiconductor detector efficiency calculations

Abstract: A broadly applicable, flexible and user-friendly PC-code (ANGLE) for calculations of semiconductor detector full energy peak efficiencies (e p ) is presented. The physical model behind is the concept of the effective solid angle $$\overline {(\Omega )} $$ . Written in Pascal, and operating in windows and menus data manipulation mode, ANGLE yields the efficiencies for: (1) HPGe true- and closed-end coaxial (bothn- andp-types), (2) Ge(Li) open- and closed-end, (3) planar LEPD and (4) well-type detectors. Supposing coaxial positioning, cylindrical or Marinelli sources can be treated, regardless of their dimensions (this includes point, disk and ring sources, bulky samples and infinite geometrics). Possible displacement between source and detector axes is treated in our another work, relative to this one. ANGLE input parameters are: (1) reference efficiency curve for the detector used (i.e., efficiency vs. γ-energy for calibrated point sources at a reference distance), (2) detector type and configuration (active body and inactive layers, end cap, windows, housing, shielding, (3) source data (dimension and composition of both container and active material), (4) source-detector geometry (distance, intercepting layers and their composition) and (5) some computational data (Gauss integration coefficients). Gamma-attenuation is calculated upon an extensive (per element and per energy) data file. In the output, efficiency vs. γ-energy is found, both in forms of tables and graphs. In routine applications accuracies of 3–4% are achieved (not worse than 7% for the most unfavourable geometries). Computation times when using recent PC models are of the order of minutes. ANGLE frame is also easily adjustable to other semiempirical or Monte Carlo models for efficiency calculations.

Sorption of131I− by hydrotalcites

Abstract: In this work, hydrotalcites were used to remove131I− from aqueous solutions. It was found that131I− sorption by hydrotalcites depends greatly on the thermal treatment of the solid and does not take place by ion exchange as I− is not capable of removing CO 3 −2 or other ions in the hydrotalcite. The anions have to be removed from the solid in order to permit I− to be sorbed in the hydrotalcite. The radionuclide content was determined by γ-spectrometry and X-ray diffraction was used to identify the compounds and to estimate cell parameters.

Large-sample neutron activation analysis: Present status and prospects

Abstract: Neutron activation analysis is attractive for trace-element determinations in large samples. Facilities for reactor irradiation and -ray spectrometry of kilogram-size cylindrical samples are described. The thermal neutron flux is ca. 5·1012m–2·s–1 with a th/ epi>104, so neutron self-thermalization can be neglected. The correction for the neutron attenuation within the sample is derived from measurement of the neutron flux depression just outside the sample. Correction for -attenuation in the sample is performed via linear attenuation coefficients derived via transmission measurements. Also the natural radioactivity in the sample is taken into account. Examples are given of materials to which large sample INAA has been applied successfully, and further lines of development and exploration are indicated.

Activation analysis as a geochemical tool: Statement of its capabilities for geochemical trace element studies

Abstract: The capabilities of neutron activation for trace elements geochemical investigation are demonstrated on the basis of long term determination and intercomparisons for the purpose of geochemical oceanic basalts investigations. We illustrate by a few examples the necessity of these capabilities for precise petrological and geodynamical modelizations. Hygromagmaphile trace element fingerprints of mantle heterogeneities are emphasized.

The program “MULTINAA” for various standardization methods in neutron activation analysis

Abstract: A compute program MULTINAA was developed to facilitate the evaluation of NAA data. It is written for the VAX/VMS syste and opeates in the Canberra/ND Genie spectroscopy software environment. MULTIINAA can be appliede to relative,k0-, monostandard (modified) and absolute methods, including the fast neutron threshold reaction. For each calculation, the available standardizations can be used individually or mixed. In all the standardization modes MULTINAA fetches the data directly from the γ-ray spectra and libraries, thus reducing the manual work to a minimum. MULTINAA is flexibkle to meet various situations in NAA practical work. The required neutron flux parameters all the non-relative methods are supplied by an accompanying program MULTIFLUX.

Effect of gamma-irradiation on surface and catalytic properties of cuo-zno/al2o3 system

Abstract: A copper, zinc and aluminium mixed oxides sample having the nominal composition 0.25 CuO/0.03 ZnO/Al2O3 was prepared by impregnating Al(OH)3 with copper and zinc nitrate solutions, drying at 100 °C then heating in air at 600 °C. The obtained solid was exposed to different doses of γ-rays (20–160 Mrad). The surface characteristics namelySBETVP andr of different treated adsorbents were determined from N2 adsorption isothems measured at −196 °C. The catalytic activity of various irradiated solids was determined by following up the kinetics of CO-oxidation by O2 at 150–200 °C. The results showed that the doses up to 80 Mrad resulted in no significant change in theSBET but increased slightly theVP (20%) of the treated adsorbents. The irradiation at 160 Mrad caused an increase of 20% in theSBET of the irradiated solid sample. The catalytic activity increased progressively by increasing the dose, a dose of 160 Mrad brought about an increase of 140% in the catalyst's activity. The apparent activation energy of the catalytic reaction decreased monotonically by increasing the absorbed dose of γ-rays which was attributed to a parallel induced decrease in the value of pre-exponential term of the Arrhenius equation. The observed increase in the catalytic activity due to γ-irradiation has been interpreted as a result of increasing the concentration of catalytically-active sites contributing in chemisorption and catalysis of CO-oxidation via a possible fragmentation of CuO crystallites.

UO22+ sorption on bentonite

Abstract: The capacity of bentonite and purified bentonite to remove UO 2 2+ ions from aqueous solutions has been investigated. The UO 2 2+ uptake in these clays was determined for 0.2 and 0.002M uranyl nitrate solutions. It was found that under these conditions (0.2M) the maximum UO 2 2+ uptake was 1.010±0.070 meq UO 2 2+ /g of bentonite and 0.787±0.020 meq UO 2 2+ /g of purified bentonite. In purified bentonite UO 2 2+ sorption is irreversible up to 50 hours as no desorption was observed. Such is not the case in the natural bentonite. X-ray diffraction, thermal analyses, and transmission electron microscopy were used to characterize the solids. The uranium content was determined by neutron activation analysis.

Comparison of two models for metal-humic interactions

Abstract: Humic acid has been shown to play a significant role in the environmental behavior of many metal cations as it can function as both a complexant and a redox agent. A number of models have been proposed to explain their complexing role, but most use quite different chemical descriptions of the metal-humate interactions. Two of these models which have been applied to humic acid interaction with actinide cations are briefly discussed. In one model in which humics are treated as anionic polyelectrolytes, cations can bind to specific anionic donor sites (site binding) as well as be attracted by the net anionic charge of the macromolecules (the Polyelectrolyte Model). In the second model (the Charge Neutralization Model), the binding for each cation is assumed to be associated with a number of carboxylate groups equal to the cationic charge. It is concluded that the Charge Neutralization Model is more useful in geochemical calculation codes, whereas the Polyelectrolyte Model can provide more insight into the chemical behavior of the humic acids.

Operational management of results in inaa utilizing a versatile system of control charts

Abstract: At the laboratory for INAA in Delft, the final approval of the analysis' report partly depends on the quality of the results of simultaneously processed reference materials (RM's). An extensive databank exists holding the information on RM type and analysis conditions. This information can be convented into control charts. The control charts can display (1) an element concentration in one RM as a function of moment of analysis, (2) an element concentrations in one RM as a function of the concentration of an interfering element, (3) an element concentration in all RM's, and (4) the nomalized concentrations of all elements in one RM. The inspection of the various chats facilitates the decision on, e.g., the need for renewed standardization, the fitness-for-use of a RM, any analyst-dependent results, rigidity of the spectrum analysis software etc.

State of the art in time-resolved laser-induced fluorescence for actinides analysis: Applications and trends

Abstract: Time-resolved laser-induced fluorescence (TRLIF) is a method of choice for actinides and lanthanides determination at low level in nuclear, biological and environmental samples. This technique is based on pulsed laser excitation followed by temporal resolution of the fluorescence signal. This technique has many advantages such as: high sensitivity, rapidity, triple selectivity and is applicable in a wide range of activity concentrations. TRLIF has been used in several fields such as; geology, in the PUREX process, in the medical field, in the environments and for nuclear waste disposal applications. Trends are towards the use of TRLIF for remote determination via fiber optics and optode as well a speciation.