Showing papers in "Journal of Social Issues in 1978"
TL;DR: It should be recognized that clients can dehumanize staff just as staff can dehumanized them, and that steps to humanize the staff-client relationship must focus on both participants in this interaction.
Abstract: The intense involvement with clients required of professional staff in various human service institutions includes a great deal of emotional stress, and failure to cope successfully with such stress can result in the emotional exhaustion syndrome of burn-out, in which staff lose all feeling and concern for their clients and treat them in detached or even dehumanized ways. This paper focuses on the role that clients themselves play in staff burn-out. Important client factors include the type and severity of the clients' problems, the prognosis of change or cure, the degree of personal relevance for the staff member of the clients' problems, the rules governing staff-client interaction, and the clients' reactions to the staff themselves. Changes in the structure of the staff-client interaction and changes in client expectations about staff can alleviate staff burn-out. It should be recognized that clients can dehumanize staff just as staff can dehumanize them, and that steps to humanize the staff-client relationship must focus on both participants in this interaction.
455 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors explore how the values and norms of masculinity are structured by and for the military and the ways in which they act as socializing agents in a model of military socialization.
Abstract: An analysis of military indoctrination as a powerful adult socialization process is crucial to an understanding of adult male role definitions since a significant proportion of the male population has undergone the basic training experience. How the values and norms of masculinity are structured by and for the military and the ways in which they act as socializing agents are explored in a model of military socialization. Some attention is paid to the shift to the all-volunteer armed force (AVAF) and the military as an occupation. The article demonstrates the type of socialization common to adult males vis-a-vis the operationalization of the prototype of masculinity.
214 citations
TL;DR: In this article, Levinson's developmental periods are applied to the existing data on older gays to provide a model for understanding gay adult development and aging, and an historical lifeline for a hypothetical gay person born in 1910 is presented to illustrate the relationship between developmental data and historical events.
Abstract: To provide a model for understanding gay adult development and aging, Levinson's developmental periods are applied to the existing data on older gays. In addition, an historical lifeline for a hypothetical gay person born in 1910 is presented to illustrate the relationship between developmental data and historical events. The lack of data on older lesbians and nonadvantaged males is noted. Stereotypes of lonely, depressed, sexually frustrated aging gay men are clearly not valid for the majority of respondents studied. However, there are particular needs of older gays, e.g., support during bereavement, assistance if physically disabled, and a reduction in stigmatization.
210 citations
TL;DR: In this article, emotional intimacy is defined in behavioral terms as mutual self-disclosure and other kinds of verbal sharing, as declarations of liking or loving the other, and as demonstrations of affection such as hugging and nongenital caressing.
Abstract: This article is not about sexual behavior between men, nor about typical male friendships; it is concerned with something in between, i.e., emotional intimacy. Emotional intimacy is defined in behavioral terms as mutual self-disclosure and other kinds of verbal sharing, as declarations of liking or loving the other, and as demonstrations of affection such as hugging and nongenital caressing.
206 citations
TL;DR: The growing differential in life expectancy between men and women in the United States in the twentieth century is noted in this article, and two explanatory perspectives are identified, the biogenetic and the psychosocial.
Abstract: The growing differential in life expectancy between men and women in the United States in the twentieth century is noted. Two explanatory perspectives are identified, the biogenetic and the psychosocial. The contemporary emerging analysis of the male role is related to the psychosocial perspective. Methodological problems in evaluating alternative perspectives are identified. Evidence for both views is examined, and it is concluded that the best available evidence confirms the psychosocial perspective that sex-role socialization accounts for the larger part of men's shorter life expectancy.
190 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, several areas of psychological theory relevant to the coming out process are discussed, including identity formation, self-disclosure and self-validation, and sex-role socialization.
Abstract: “Coming out” is the developmental process through which gay people recognize their sexual preferences and choose to integrate this knowledge into their personal and social lives. A number of experiences are critical in this process: the awareness of same-sex attractions, first homosexual experience, coming out in the gay world, labeling oneself as gay or homosexual, coming out to friends, family, and co-workers, and coming out publicly. Several areas of psychological theory relevant to the coming out process are discussed, including identity formation, self-disclosure and self-validation, and sex-role socialization. In addition, differences are noted in the coming out experiences of men and women related to conformity to and violation of sex-role expectations, as well as to political and legal issues.
183 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, male and female psychotherapists were asked to rate both a hypothetical client, based on an intake case history, and their concept of the "psychologically healthy person" on a semantic differential scale.
Abstract: Forty male and forty female psychotherapists were asked to rate both a hypothetical client, based on an intake case history, and their concept of the “psychologically healthy person” on a semantic differential scale. Participants were assigned case histories where the hypothetical client was a heterosexual male, heterosexual female, homosexual male, or homosexual female. Attributions of psychological health were found to differ as a function of sexual orientation of client and sex of therapist. No significant difference was found between evaluation of male homosexual and female homosexual clients. Results are discussed in terms of the significance of perceived violations of sex-role stereotypes in the evaluation of psychological health.
135 citations
TL;DR: In the children's liberation movement, it is objected that the positions taken by child liberators would add to the rights of children by increasing the responsibilities of their elders, and sacrifice the welfare of children to their presumed rights as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: It is objected that the positions taken by child liberators would add to the rights of children by increasing the responsibilities of their elders, and sacrifice the welfare of children to their presumed rights. To grant that children should have all the rights now possessed by adults contradicts four propositions which have gained wide popular and scientific support: (a) children undergo successive qualitative transformations requiring commensurate changes in social status as they pass from one stage of development to the next; (b) children are inferior to adults in the competencies required to survive independently and therefore require special protection; (c) self-determination in adulthood is a product of maturation and not a gift bestowed by permissive caretakers; and (d) adult authority properly exercised in the early years is positively related to later independence. The ethically insupportable feature of the children's liberation movement is its failure to acknowledge that dependent status precludes possession of the full rights of the emancipated person. The principle of reciprocity in parent-child relations is thereby rejected, and indeed, adults are expected to assume new duties so that children may exercise new rights.
113 citations
TL;DR: The love relationships of lesbians were investigated as part of a questionnaire study of a diverse sample of 127 lesbians as discussed by the authors, and the majority of women said their current relationship was extremely close, personally satisfying, and egalitarian.
Abstract: The love relationships of lesbians were investigated as part of a questionnaire study of a diverse sample of 127 lesbians. The majority of women said their current relationship was extremely close, personally satisfying, and egalitarian. Differences among women's values concerning relationships reflected two distinct dimensions: dyadic attachment and personal autonomy. These relationship values were associated with women's social characteristics and feminist involvement. Relationship values were also related to such characteristics of women's current relationships as measures of love and satisfaction, future commitment, sexual exclusivity, and problems of independence/dependence.
109 citations
TL;DR: This paper examined child-rearing manuals in America from 1913 to 1976, viewing the literature as mother-parenting tracts which have as much to say about the lives of women as about the children for whom they are caring.
Abstract: While devoting substantial efforts to studying the impact of the mother-child dyad on children's growth, development, and social and intellectual achievements, researchers under the umbrella of child development (psychologists, pediatricians, educators) have failed to explore the impact of rearing children on mothers' lives. This article examines child-rearing manuals in America from 1913 to 1976 viewing the literature as mother-rearing tracts which have as much to say about the lives of women as about the children for whom they are caring.
104 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors extract elements of the traditional male sex role which have relevance for sexual behavior and suggest how they influence adult male heterosexual behavior in contemporary Western society, including goals and success, control and power, aggression and violence.
Abstract: The intent of this paper is to extract those elements of the traditional male sex role which have relevance for sexual behavior and to suggest how they influence adult male heterosexual behavior in contemporary Western society. Two important themes-the centrality of sexual behavior to male gender identity, and the relative isolation of sex from other aspects of male heterosocial relationships-are identified. Then a number of linkages between male sexual behaviors/attitudes and general facets of the male sex role are examined: (a) goals and success, (b) control and power, and (c) aggression and violence. It is argued that many of the influences emanating from a restrictive sex-typed socialization process are maladaptive, and specifically that recent shifts away from the traditional “sexual animal” stereotype toward a modern “competent lover” image are largely surface alterations, that both have their roots in the same learning process with similar pernicious effects.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors delineate the special status of black men in contemporary society and analyze the roles of lover, husband, and father for black men, as well as the socialization process and problems of black youth.
Abstract: This article delineates the special status of black men in contemporary society. First, considering some of the common stereotypes of black men from a historical perspective, alternative explanations are posited to counter prevailing views of the Afro-American male as emasculated, dominated by women, and lacking in positive self-esteem. The socialization process and problems of black youth are examined. Afterwards the special roles of lover, husband, and father are analyzed as black men interpret and carry them out. Finally, black male sexism and the response of black feminism are discussed, as are the problems and prospects for black men in American society.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors describe the development of a classification schema consisting of two conceptual orientations toward the rights of children (nurturance and self-determination) which cut across five different content areas.
Abstract: This article describes the development of a classification schema consisting of two conceptual orientations toward the rights of children (nurturance and self-determination) which cut across five different content areas. An attitudinal scale based on this schema was administered to 381 individuals representing both sexes and four different groups: high school students, undergraduate education majors, other undergraduates, and adults. High school students held significantly more positive attitudes toward the extension of self-determination rights and significantly less positive attitudes toward the extension of nurturant rights to children than any other group. In addition, differences by sex were obtained toward extending nurturant rights, with females holding significantly more positive attitudes than males. Overall, respondents evidenced more positive attitudes toward the extension of nurturant than of self-determination rights.
TL;DR: The use of satisfaction as an outcome variable has a long history in organizational psychology literature and a shorter history in the development of subjective social indicators of the quality of life as discussed by the authors, and one way of measuring public agency effectiveness is through the criterion of client satisfaction.
Abstract: One way of measuring public agency effectiveness is through the criterion of client satisfaction. The use of satisfaction as an outcome variable has a long history in the organizational psychology literature and a shorter history in the development of subjective social indicators of the quality of life. In general, satisfaction levels in all areas—job, life, government agencies—are higher than anticipated by researchers and the lay public, do not yield much variation among social classes, job categories, or agency experiences, and tend to be more favorable when own experience is assessed rather than when others' experiences are assessed. Several strategies are suggested by which researchers have tried or might try to improve satisfaction studies. These include forsaking subjective outcome measures for objective outcome measures, trying to develop a “better” measure of satisfaction, using facet-specific measures of satisfaction rather than global, general measures, using other words with similar meanings (e.g., happiness, contentment), and exploring the cognitive meaning of satisfaction for respondents. The last strategy is endorsed as a relatively untried but potentially fruitful approach.
TL;DR: The Boy Scouts of America (Boy Scouts) movement as discussed by the authors was founded in the early 20th century to counter perceived forces of feminization in the world of adolescents, and it was a means to counteract perceived forces against the development and expression of masculinity.
Abstract: The success of the Boy Scouts of America in the early twentieth century can in part be understood in terms of increased concern over the maintenance of traditional concepts of masculinity. Adult men at the turn of the century believed that the opportunities for the development and expression of masculinity were being restricted. Scouting was a means to counteract perceived forces of feminization in the world of adolescents. An analysis of the social background and motivations of scoutmasters suggests that the Scouting movement provided adult men, denied by their occupations, an opportunity to validate the traditional image of masculinity.
TL;DR: Three historical conceptualizations of fathering are described: the traditional perspective, marked by the model of the aloof and distant father; the modern perspective, concerned with child outcome variables of sex-role identity development, academic achievement, and moral development, all of which may be furthered by father-child contact; and the emergent perspective exploring the premise that men have the capacity to be effective nurturers of their children.
Abstract: Three historical conceptualizations of fathering are described: the traditional perspective, marked by the model of the aloof and distant father; the modern perspective, concerned with child outcome variables of sex-role identity development, academic achievement, and moral development, all of which may be furthered by father-child contact; and the emergent perspective, exploring the premise that men have the capacity to be effective nurturers of their children. It is suggested that social science has lagged or run parallel to society's discussions about fathering. With increasing social attention on families and the relationship between family life and work life, social scientists have an opportunity to rethink understandings of fathering and to contribute to evolving social policies that affect families in the United States.
TL;DR: The emergence of childhood as a social issue is barely a century old as discussed by the authors and the historical roots of current child advocacy movements can be found in an earlier period (1873-1914) characterized as the child-saving era.
Abstract: The emergence of childhood as a social issue is barely a century old. The historical roots of current child advocacy movements can be found in an earlier period (1873–1914) characterized as the child-saving era. The emergence of this social issue during this period appears to be related to changing conceptualizations of the child, the developing “scientific” view of the child, as well as the influence of industrialization and urbanization. The child-saving era resulted in a number of problematic achievements regarding children's rights. The historical discussion points to the contributions which developmental and social psychology can make to the study of children's rights.
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TL;DR: This paper reviewed the empirical literature on people's beliefs about males, particularly how the "typical male" is described on paper-and-pencil adjective-list studies, and suggested three traits that seem to be mentioned most often as characteristic of the typical male: active and achievement-oriented, dominating and level-headed.
Abstract: This paper reviews the empirical literature on people's beliefs about males, particularly how the “typical male” is described on paper-and-pencil adjective-list studies. A threefold categorization is suggested of the traits that seem to be mentioned most often as characteristic of the typical male: (a) how a man handles his life (active and achievement-oriented), (b) how a man handles others (dominant), and (c) how a man handles his psyche (level-headed). In addition, several methodological and interpretational problems are described. On the basis of these problems and of findings from studies that examine beliefs about males in different ways, it is suggested that highly stereotypic beliefs about males may be less pervasive than usually thought.
TL;DR: The authors traces three aspects of women's socialization, self-concept, feminine sex-role behavior, and sexuality, which have particular implications for lesbians and discusses the implications of these three in therapy.
Abstract: Psychotherapeutic work with lesbians is confounded by both sexist and heterosexist factors. This paper traces three aspects of women's socialization—self-concept, feminine sex-role behavior, and sexuality— which have particular implications for lesbians and discusses the implications of these three in therapy. The impact of women's conditioning to base self-esteem on acceptance by others is noted, particularly as such conditioning combines with the cumulative stresses of lesbian life. Finally, examples of ways in which heterosexual bias may become apparent in therapy are given, and alternative therapeutic approaches are discussed.
TL;DR: Men's behavior has received most attention and predominantly male subjects who have been studied by social scientists as discussed by the authors, with only a few exceptions (e.g., Hacker, 1957; Hartley, 1959).
Abstract: As a feminist social scientific perspective on women emerged in the last decade, it was often said that such a perspective was needed because most social science research and theory is about men. This indictment has been an accurate one, in the sense that it is men's behavior that has received most attention and predominantly male subjects who have been studied. But in another sense it is equally true that, with only a few exceptions (e.g.. Hacker, 1957; Hartley, 1959), social scientists have hardly studied the male role at all. That is, although men and their behavior have been assiduously studied, only recently have researchers begun to study systematically the impact on men of the powerful social expectations they face by virtue of being males: prevalent cultural beliefs about personality characteristics they should have and behaviors they should perform, together with both subtle and overt encouragements to conform to these beliefs. In the last several years, social science has begun to address the male role (see Bibliography of the Men's Studies Collection, Note 1). This recent development of interest in the male role is, of course, strongly indebted to the growing body of research on women—indebted both for many of its specific concepts and
TL;DR: Considerations for an alternative, person-focused public policy are presented that would function to maintain a more optimal level of independence for the elderly.
Abstract: Current federal legislation has established nursing homes as part of the medical health-care system rather than as community-based institutions. The associated regulations allocate resources and provide services in a manner that emphasizes meeting the medical requirements of the individual, often at the expense of his social and psychological needs. Further, the quality of life that can be provided in nursing homes receiving public funds has been determined in large part by the kind of bureaucracy mandated by federal legislation and the supporting state standards of operations required for certification. The resulting organization constricts the range of options open to the individual in such settings, fostering psychological and economic dependency. Considerations for an alternative, person-focused public policy are presented that would function to maintain a more optimal level of independence for the elderly.
TL;DR: In this paper, the effects of the label "homosexual" upon the perceptions and behavior of the social audience toward men so labeled were examined. But the effect of the labels on men's perceptions and behaviors was not explored.
Abstract: This study attempted to experimentally isolate and determine the effects of the label “homosexual” upon the perceptions and behavior of the social audience toward men so labeled. Participants rated three different experimental confederates, each labeled homosexual in three groups and not labeled homosexual in three groups. Men were perceived as being significantly less masculine and less preferred as a fellow participant in any future experiment when they were labeled homosexual. The man responsible for the primary labeling of the homosexual was perceived as more masculine and more sociable when he labeled the homosexual than when he did not. Results are discussed in terms of the function of the fear of the homosexual label in maintaining the traditional male role.
TL;DR: A review of the literature on role modeling leads to the conclusions that children internalize particular traits from a variety of models and that gays are more likely to serve as nontraditional sex-role models than as determiners of same-sex sexual preference.
Abstract: Within the framework that same-sex sexual preference can be a positive outcome, the developmental aspects of sexual identity are traced. It seems that gender identity is fixed in early childhood, rigid sex-role identity has questionable effects while more flexibility in sex-role behaviors has definite advantages, and sexual preference choices continue to evolve throughout one's lifetime. A review of the literature on role modeling leads to the conclusions that children internalize particular traits from a variety of models, and that gays are more likely to serve as nontraditional sex-role models than as determiners of same-sex sexual preference.
TL;DR: A review of the literature relevant to the latitudes of acceptable masculine behavior is presented and a reconceptualization of the definition of the adult male role is proposed in this article.
Abstract: The popular assumption that the male role, as traditionally defined in our society, is narrowly defined and that men who deviate from that role risk devaluation is reexamined. Two studies are presented which did not support the hypothesis that the adult male role is restrictive. A review of the literature relevant to the latitudes of acceptable masculine behavior is presented and a reconceptualization of the definition of the adult male role is proposed.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors discuss how the structure and function of the hierarchical organization alters the perspective by which individuals view their actions, and changes an individual's perception of his or her role and responsibility.
Abstract: The phenomenon of obedience is usually considered on an individual level, although typically acts of obedience are committed by an individual who is acting within an organizational framework. This paper discusses how the structure and function of the hierarchical organization alters the perspective by which individuals view their actions, and changes an individual's perception of his or her role and responsibility. Organizational dehumanization and act fragmentation and their function in the facilitation of evil acts are considered.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors provide an analysis of role strain experienced by a sample of athletes and nonathletes and apply Komarovsky's typology to and further develop through interview data.
Abstract: The article provides an analysis of role strain experienced by a sample of athletes and nonathletes. Komarovsky's typology of role strain is applied to and further developed through our interview data. The modes of role strain experienced by athletes involved ambiguity of norms, decreasing internal and external rewards for role performance, structural insufficiency of resources, role conflict, overload of role obligations, and role-intrinsic anxiety and physical damage. The nonathletes experienced role strain involving the incongruity between personality characteristics and the demands of the athletic role.
TL;DR: It is consistent with contemporary community standards and accepted professional ethics for psychologists to provide treatment for children who exhibit maladaptive behavior, including gender dysphoria, but it is not possible to obtain proper consent from the child which truly satisfies the legal criteria of being informed and competent.
Abstract: It is consistent with contemporary community standards and accepted professional ethics for psychologists to provide treatment for children who exhibit maladaptive behavior, including gender dysphoria. We do not believe it possible to obtain proper consent from the child which truly satisfies the legal criteria of being informed and competent. Although some critics allege that it is inappropriate for parents or professional to impose their standards on children, there seems no more appropriate reference group to make the social value judgment than the parent in consultation with professionals who are, in turn, sensitive to the broader social codes and moral expectations of the community. To distinguish psychological treatment from other forms of intervention for children (such as school attendance, dental care, and medical treatment) would imply that psychological intervention should follow different ethical standards, a conclusion we reject. All professions have the same ethical obligation to guarantee to children a foundation for happy and productive lives, whether it be through appropriate educational, psychological, medical, or dental intervention.
TL;DR: This statement holds that children should participate in research only under conditions of adequately informed consent, that parents must be fully informed about research procedures and purposes, but that parental consent is a sufficient condition only for infants or children without adequate capacity for informed choice.
Abstract: The child is considered to be a person with the right of self-determination. This statement holds that children should participate in research only under conditions of adequately informed consent, that parents must be fully informed about research procedures and purposes, but that parental consent is a sufficient condition only for infants or children without adequate capacity for informed choice. Children should receive complete explanations consonant with their level of understanding; guidelines are suggested for different age groups. Incomplete disclosure may be warranted if followed by adequate debriefing; however, deception is thought never to be justified. Special problems of invasion of privacy arising in naturalistic field studies are discussed. The intrinsic value of science is proposed both as justification and as motivation for children's participation as research subjects.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors explore the developmental requirements for the growth of a positive gay identity and life style and discuss the relationship between gay identity, sex role violation, and its implications both for gay people and for the larger society.
Abstract: Implications of the gay rights movement for the rights of children are examined from a developmental perspective which allows the rights issue to be refocused from one of children's rights to that of the rights of the adults that children become. Believing that a gay identity and life style is a positive option to which all adults have a right, we explore the developmental requirements for the growth of a positive gay identity. First, society and its institutions must stop trying to stamp out homosexuality through intervention programs which promote a negative (or homosexual) identity rather than a positive (gay) identity. Second, social systems must support and facilitate the development of a gay identity and life style, by informing children about the existence of gay-identified adults and their life styles, by providing positive gay role models, and by allowing the opportunity for exploring gay feelings and life styles. The relationship between gay identity and sex-role violation is discussed and its implications both for gay people and for the larger society are examined.
TL;DR: In this article, a review of recent legal decisions affecting the rights of children are reviewed and analyzed in terms of efforts to balance the often competing interests of children, their families, and the state.
Abstract: Recent legal decisions affecting the rights of children are reviewed and analyzed in terms of efforts to balance the often competing interests of children, their families, and the state. Several decisions that have resulted in an extension of children's rights have been based primarily on clarification of general constitutional principles rather than on a changing conception of children and their appropriate rights. The courts also see legislative action as the appropriate mechanism for responding to children's needs. In this regard, it is important to distinguish between legal rights and society's duties. The former are the province of the court while the latter are the province of the legislature and the community.