Showing papers in "Journal of Social Issues in 1981"
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors integrate the findings of a series of studies that empirically address contentions that many “normal” men possess a proclivity to rape.
Abstract: This article integrates the findings of a series of studies that empirically address contentions that many “normal” men possess a proclivity to rape In these studies, an attempt was made to identify individuals with such a proclivity by asking male college students how likely they personally would be to rape if they could be assured of not being caught On the average, about 35% indicated some likelihood of raping To assess the validity of such reports as indicators of a proclivity to rape, the following three steps were taken: First, the literature was reviewed to identify responses that distinguished convicted rapists from the general population The responses found to characterize rapists were greater acceptance of rape myths and relatively high sexual arousal to rape depictions Second, the relationships between reported likelihood of raping and the responses found to characterize rapists were analyzed The data clearly showed that in comparison with men who reported lower likelihood of raping, men who indicated higher likelihood were more similar to convicted rapists both in beliefs in rape myths and in sexual arousal to rape depictions Third, the relationship between likelihood of raping reports and aggressive behavior was examined It was found that higher reported likelihood of raping was associated with greater aggression against women within a laboratory setting The overall pattern of the data is interpreted as supporting the validity of likelihood of raping ratings and consistent with contentions that many men have a proclivity to rape Possible causes of such a propensity and directions for future research are discussed
537 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a cross-cultural study on the sociocultural context of rape was undertaken to examine the incidence meaning and function of rape in tribal societies and found that women in these societies do not participate in decision making.
Abstract: A cross-cultural study on the sociocultural context of rape was undertaken to examine the incidence meaning and function of rape in tribal societies. The study utilized a cross-cultural sample of 156 tribal societies. The research described in this paper departs from the assumption that although sexual behavior of human beings was based on a biological need it was rather an expression of a sociological and cultural force than merely a bodily relation between two persons. Analysis of available information suggested that rape in tribal societies was part of a cultural configuration which includes interpersonal violence male dominance and sexual separation. There was considerable evidence to support the notion that rape was an expression of a social ideology of male dominance. First female power and authority was lower in rape prone societies. Second women in these societies do not participate in decision making. The correlates of rape strongly suggested that rape was the playing out of a sociocultural script in which the personhood of males was expressed through interpersonal violence and an ideology of toughness.
525 citations
TL;DR: An overview of the literature on stress and the environment using a basic attitude change paradigm is presented in this article, where the appraisal of stressors is considered as a transmission variable, affected by such factors as attitudes towards the stressor, perception of risk and danger, and perceived control.
Abstract: This paper presents an overview of the literature on stress and the environment using a basic attitude change paradigm. The stress literature is organized around characteristics of source, transmission, and audience variables. Prominent models of stress are reviewed, along with classifications of stressors themselves. The appraisal of stressors is considered as a transmission variable, affected by such factors as attitudes towards the stressor, perception of risk and danger, and perceived control. Research on dispositional variables is also reviewed and the stress response is discussed.
293 citations
TL;DR: This paper introduces a conceptual framework aimed at integrating the conservation behavior literature and facilitating the comparison of findings across studies, and seven commonly used approaches to encouraging conservation behavior are described.
Abstract: This paper introduces a conceptual framework aimed at integrating the conservation behavior literature and facilitating the comparison of findings across studies. Within this framework, conservation behavior is approached from the theoretical orientations of attitude change, behavior modification and behavior maintenance. Seven commonly used approaches to encouraging conservation behavior are described in terms of these perspectives. Illustrative research related to each approach is reviewed.
202 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the results of a longitudinal investigation of victim reactions to rape were reported, finding that victims were significantly more anxious, fearful, suspicious, and confused than non-victims for at least a year after their assaults.
Abstract: After reviewing previous work on psychological effects of a rape experience, this paper reports the results of a longitudinal investigation of victim reactions to rape. Adult victims (N = 20) were assessed at 1 month, 6 months, and 1 year postrape, and a group of matched non-victims (N = 20) were assessed at similar intervals. Findings were that victims were significantly more anxious, fearful, suspicious, and confused than nonvictims for at least a year after their assaults. However, there was significant improvement on those as well as other measures of personality and mood state over time, particularly between 1 and 6 months. Implications of these findings with regard to both social learning and feminist theory and therapy are discussed.
201 citations
TL;DR: This article found that women fear crime more than men and engage in more precautionary behaviors, and that women with the fewest resources to cope with victimization, the elderly, ethnic minorities, and those with low incomes carry the heaviest burden of fear.
Abstract: Feminists argue that the threat of rape acts as an instrument of social control of women, keeping them in a state of anxiety and encouraging the self-imposition of behavioral restrictions in a quest for safety. This assertion is tested with survey data from residents of Chicago, Philadelphia, and San Francisco. Women fear crime more than men, and engage in more precautionary behaviors. However, these fears and behaviors are not randomly distributed among women. Those with the fewest resources to cope with victimization, the elderly, ethnic minorities, and those with low incomes, carry the heaviest burden of fear. Psychosocial and environmental factors associated with high fear levels among women include perceptions of high risk of one's own victimization of a multitude of violent crimes (including rape), a sense of physical powerlessness, and weak feelings of attachment to the neighborhood. Fear levels are strong predictors of the use of either of two types of safety strategies, isolating oneself from danger by limiting one's movement through time and space, and risk management in the face of danger by using “street savvy” tactics. Reliance on isolation is associated with women's beliefs about their own physical competence, while use of “street savvy” tactics is related to women's attitudes about the extent of danger in their neighborhoods. The implications of these results for the quality of women's lives are discussed.
188 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the effects of noise on human performance, interpersonal behavior, annoyance, cognitive development, and mental and physical health are reviewed, and the relevance of this research for predicting the effect of noise in community and industrial settings is emphasized.
Abstract: This article presents an overview of research and theory on the nonauditory effects of noise on human behavior and health. Laboratory and naturalistic research on the effects of noise on human performance, interpersonal behavior, annoyance, cognitive development, and mental and physical health are reviewed. The review includes studies of children as well as adults, and the discussion emphasizes the relevance of this research for predicting the effect of noise in community and industrial settings. Noise effects are viewed as determined by variations in psychological characteristics of a situation as well as the physical parameters of the sound. Predictability and controllability of a noise, its meaning for the respondent and its degree of interference with auditory communication are factors that mediate the effects of noise across a variety of outcome measures.
186 citations
TL;DR: According to as discussed by the authors, the two most commonly expressed reasons for conserving energy are to save money and to help solve the energy problem, which is congruent with the Fishbein attitude model.
Abstract: Many surveys indicate that about half of all Americans believe that the energy problem is real and serious, and less than one-fourth are completely unconvinced of the problem. Large proportions of the public also support relatively strong conservation policies, especially if they feel personally responsible for helping solve the problem and hold a broad environmental ethic. The latter values, which are linked with ideas of “voluntary simplicity,” appear to be replacing traditional American beliefs in material consumption. General attitudes toward the energy problem are not associated with reported conservation actions, but people who anticipate experiencing direct personal consequences from the energy problem are likely to take action to save energy. This is congruent with the Fishbein attitude model. Anticipated personal consequences (especially pertaining to one's health and comfort) are also a critical factor in predicting actual reductions in household energy consumption. The two most commonly expressed reasons for conserving energy are to save money and to help solve the energy problem.
168 citations
TL;DR: This article reviewed the existing literature on air pollution and behavior and presented an organizational structure that demonstrates gaps in the literature and lays an initial, conceptual framework for future research, and discussed the important roles of mediational constructs such as controllability of pollutant and adaptation.
Abstract: While the impacts of human behavior on air pollution are considerable, very little research has examined this relationship. Similarly, little work has ensued on the effects of air pollution on human behavior. The purpose of this paper is to review the existing literature on air pollution and behavior and present an organizational structure that demonstrates gaps in the literature and lays an initial, conceptual framework for future research. The paper discusses research on the health effects, cognitive, affective, and conative components of air pollution and human response. In addition, the important roles of mediational constructs such as controllability of pollutant and adaptation are discussed in detail.
137 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors suggest that people's decisions to adopt energy-conserving processes and products are a specific instance of the decision to adopt an innovation, and that information that determines people's perceptions of innovations is more likely to be transmitted via social networks rather than mass media or other channels of communication.
Abstract: We suggest that people's decisions to adopt energy-conserving processes and products is a specific instance of the decision to adopt an innovation. Drawing on previous research, we postulate a set of eight dimensions by means of which energy-conserving innovations are evaluated. We further argue that people's perceptions of an innovation's characteristics, on these dimensions, determine their decisions to adopt that innovation. Again in keeping with past research, we suggest that information that determines people's perceptions of innovations is more likely to be transmitted via social networks rather than mass media or other channels of communication. Taken together, these propositions form a theory of the adoption and diffusion of energy-conserving innovations. A research program is sketched that would provide support for the theory.
113 citations
TL;DR: This article found that normative expectations were typically better predictors of intentions to report than were perceived outcomes, and with certain exceptions, ethnic differences existed with regard to the specific perceived outcomes that were most closely related to behavioral intentions, while the specific normative expectations that best predicted behavioral intentions tended to be the same for all four groups.
Abstract: Approximately 100 women in each of four ethnic groups (Asian, Black, Hispanic and White) completed a questionnaire in which they indicated (a) intentions to report having been raped to each of 10 potential report recipients; (b) perceived outcomes of reporting to each report recipient; and (c) perceived normative expectations to report held by family, friends, etc. It was found that (1) intentions to report varied substantially according to ethnic group membership; (2) subject-by-subject analyses indicated that normative expectations were typically better predictors of intentions to report than were perceived outcomes; and (3) with certain exceptions, ethnic differences existed with regard to the specific perceived outcomes that were most closely related to behavioral intentions, while the specific normative expectations that best predicted behavioral intentions tended to be the same for all four groups. Language: en
TL;DR: In this article, the relationship of high ambient temperatures to physiological adaptation, performance, and the social behaviors of attraction, aggression, and helping is reviewed, and mediators of arousal, adaptive capacity, and negative affect are employed to explain the empirical data, and to suggest directions for future research.
Abstract: This paper reviews research on the relationship of high ambient temperatures to physiological adaptation, performance, and the social behaviors of attraction, aggression, and helping. In general, very high temperatures reduce performance, attraction, aggression and helping behavior. Moderately warm temperatures, however, have less predictable effects, sometimes facilitating a given behavior and at other times reducing it. High temperatures may either increase or decrease arousal, narrow attention, and cause discomfort. The mediators of arousal, adaptive capacity, and negative affect are employed to explain the empirical data, and to suggest directions for future research.
TL;DR: The authors found that women were more likely to avoid being raped by men they knew, particularly if they had had a prior sexual relationship with them, and when the only strategy they used was talking or pleading, when the assault took place in their homes, when their primary concern was with not being killed or mutilated and when there was a threat of force.
Abstract: This paper is based on interviews with a sub-sample of 13 women who had been both raped and had avoided being raped when attacked. Both acts had to occur when the woman was an adult, and at least one attack had to have taken place not more than two years prior to the interview. These women were part of a larger convenience sample of 94 women, 18 and over, who had either been raped or had avoided being raped when threatened within two years prior to the interview. The interviews examined both background and situational variables. Because for these 13 women the background factors, except for the prior assault, were held constant since each woman was her own control, it is possible to see the impact of situational variables on the outcome—rape or rape avoidance. Women were more likely to avoid rape under the following circumstances: 1) when they were attacked by strangers, 2) when they used multiple strategies, screamed and physically struggled, 3) when the assault took place outside, and 4) when their primary concern was with not being raped. Women were more likely to be raped under the following circumstances: 1) when they were attacked by men they knew, particularly if they had had a prior sexual relationship with them, 2) when the only strategy they used was talking or pleading, 3) when the assault took place in their homes, 4) when their primary concern was with not being killed or mutilated and 5) when there was a threat of force.
TL;DR: In this article, a model of crowding highlighting the importance of perceived control and group orientation is discussed and a review of the literature on crowding in residential and laboratory settings is reviewed.
Abstract: A model of crowding highlighting the importance of perceived control and group orientation is discussed. The literature on crowding in residential and laboratory settings is reviewed. Control and group orientation are shown to mediate reactions to high density environments, both in residential and laboratory settings. Needed future directions in research on crowding are discussed. These include intensive case studies focusing on the processes used to cope with crowding, paying greater attention to the role of group phenomena, and studying the effects of crowding in classroom settings.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors compared the impact of common law and reform rape legislation on prosecution, based on an analysis of 445 forcible and statutory rape cases in King County, Washington, and concluded that the main impact of the statutory reform has been a symbolic and educative one for society at large, rather than an instrumental one for law enforcement.
Abstract: This article compares the impact of common law and reform rape legislation on prosecution, based on an analysis of 445 forcible and statutory rape cases in King County, Washington. In both types of cases, reform of the legal definition of rape resulted in (1) no change in the overall rates of convictions and pleas, although the new gradations of the crime led to more convictions and pleas labelled “rape” rather than some surrogate offense (e.g., assault), and (2) no change in the overall rate of charging, because the decision-making criteria used by prosecutors at their discretion have remained the same under both statutory schemes. Reform of the penalties for rape, adapted to the degrees of culpability, resulted in more certain but not necessarily more severe punishment, an outcome embraced by general deterrence theory. The conclusion is that the main impact of the statutory reform has been a symbolic and educative one for society at large, rather than an instrumental one for law enforcement. Implications are drawn from the results for the reformulation of rape law in terms of a well-reasoned principle of nonconsent, and for administrative policy in rape prosecutions based upon standards for the exercise of charging discretion.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors focus on ways that the design of the physical environment affects important individual goals, such as appropriate levels of social interaction and way-finding and spatial orientation.
Abstract: This paper focuses on ways that the design of the physical environment affects important individual goals, such as appropriate levels of social interaction and wayfinding and spatial orientation. A preliminary framework is proposed that suggests that the design of the environment causes stress by affecting person-environment fit. Next, the role of the physical environment in the regulation of social interaction and in wayfinding and spatial orientation is discussed. Finally, several suggestions for future research are presented.
TL;DR: While clearly more services are needed than currently exist for the chronically mentally ill, it is suggested that treatment can be improved by altering the way in which existing services are delivered to this population.
Abstract: This paper reviews research on the community treatment of the chronically mentally ill, in order to determine what services are necessary for deinstitutionalization to succeed with this population Residential services, assistance in meeting basic needs, crisis intervention services, somatic therapies, problem-solving outpatient contacts, and comprehensive psychosocial treatments are found to be necessary in order to achieve a number of commonly cited goals in the treatment of the chronically mentally ill Furthermore, the way that services are delivered may be of equal importance to what services are made available To be effective services must be delivered in a highly individualized manner, be made assertively available, be structured to maximize the provision of continuity of care, and be provided in an ongoing rather than time-limited fashion While clearly more services are needed than currently exist for the chronically mentally ill, it is suggested that treatment can be improved by altering the way in which existing services are delivered to this population
TL;DR: In this paper, the issue of critical periods in development is used as an example of the problem, in terms of the tendency to be wedded to convenient theories, the difficulty in examining the bureaucratic-institutional socialization process, the problem of avoiding conformity when one is an insider and the general difficulty of incorporating research findings into social programming and policy decisions.
Abstract: A problem with respect to social action research is being sufficiently “outside” to be objective, and yet enough “inside” to understand the phenomena being studied. The issue of critical periods in development is used as an example of the problem, in terms of the tendency to be wedded to convenient theories, the difficulty in examining the bureaucratic-institutional socialization process, the problem of avoiding conformity when one is an insider, and the general difficulty of incorporating research findings into social programming and policy decisions. Some suggestions are offered, including the potential role of SPSSI as an organization of “significant others” for the social researcher and the behavioral scientist.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors discuss the human response to the thermal environment depends on seven variables: (1) air temperature, (2) relative humidity, (3) mean radiant temperature (temperature from surfaces such as windows), (4) air velocity, (5) clothing, (6) physical activity, and (7) time.
Abstract: Human response to the thermal environment depends on seven variables: (1) air temperature, (2) relative humidity, (3) mean radiant temperature (temperature from surfaces such as windows), (4) air velocity, (5) clothing, (6) physical activity, and (7) time. After discussing major studies in thermal comfort which served as the basis for the comfort standard, and outlining the comfort standard itself, these seven factors are discussed individually in terms of ways in which they can be modified to conserve energy. Special topics include the Federal Emergency Building Temperature Restriction Plan (65°F in winter, 78°F in summer), night set-back, accidential hypothermia in the elderly, seasonal effects and interior decor.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors provide an overview of several articles on the impact of the energy crisis which examine key ideas, emerging theories, findings, and methodologies that are guiding current social research.
Abstract: The author provides an overview of several articles on the impact of the energy crisis which examine key ideas, emerging theories, findings, and methodologies that are guiding current social research. The articles deal with energy policy and how energy conservation fits into national policy, the social psychological context for energy conservation research on behavior and attitudes, and how to facilitate the adoption of conservation measures that increase the efficiency of energy use. The papers review psychological theory on the adoption of innovations, and offer modifications and extensions that tailor it to fit the adoption of energy-conserving innovations. 7 references.
TL;DR: It is unlikely that community based services can reduce the need for institutional care among those residual elderly who will not have family to care for them at home and who will have virtually no potential for restoration to the activities of everyday life.
Abstract: Family caregiving to elderly impaired members is so ubiquitous that there are more homebound than institutionalized elderly. The burden on families who provide care to impaired elderly family members can be enormous but it can be reduced through extrafamilial assistance. Institutional care is often sought when the burden becomes overwhelming; and if institutionalized, the older person cannot avoid feelings of abandonment, and the family, feelings of guilt. Family involvement persists after the elderly person enters and lives in the institution. Although it can be expected that families will continue to be committed, willingness to provide home care may diminish because of changes in family caregivers: more daughters are likely to be working and more children likely to be elderly themselves and to be members of non-intact families who may perceive familial obligations differently. It is unlikely that community based services can reduce the need for institutional care among those residual elderly who will not have family to care for them at home and who will have virtually no potential for restoration to the activities of everyday life.
TL;DR: In this article, the problems involved in conducting program evaluation in the field of energy conservation are examined and a view of evaluation research that highlights its similarities to basic research is presented and suggested that an understanding of the issue of formative and summative evaluations may resolve some of the points of difference.
Abstract: This article examines the problems involved in conducting program evaluation in the field of energy conservation. First, we offer a view of evaluation research that highlights its similarities to basic research. Criticisms of this view are presented and it is suggested that an understanding of the issue of formative and summative evaluations may resolve some of the points of difference. Then, various stages of evaluation research are examined within the context of energy conservation programs and it is argued that experimental evaluations are desirable and feasible.
TL;DR: The authors analyzes deinstitutionalization and community treatment of psychiatric patients from a sociocultural perspective, discusses the social values and processes of the movement, and presents an overview of the experience of patients in the community.
Abstract: This paper analyzes deinstitutionalization and community treatment of psychiatric patients from a sociocultural perspective, discusses the social values and processes of the movement, and presents an overview of the experience of patients in the community It argues that, in sociocultural terms, deinstitutionalization of the most needy patients has failed Economic, clinical, and social hypotheses about why these failures have occurred are presented The analysis suggests that deinstitutionalization has failed in large part because it did not address the sociocultural reasons for institutionalization
TL;DR: The deinstitutionalization movement has been widely hailed as a beneficent reform which reflected advances in understanding produced by social scientific research as mentioned in this paper. Yet close attention to the achievements rather than the rhetoric of the movement suggests a much bleaker picture.
Abstract: The deinstitutionalization movement has been widely hailed as a beneficent reform which reflected advances in understanding produced by social scientific research. Yet close attention to the achievements rather than the rhetoric of the movement suggests a much bleaker picture. For neither the mentally ill nor the criminal has the outcome matched proponents' expectations and intentions.
TL;DR: An outcome model of rehabilitation effectiveness for both institutional and alternative settings is proposed to assess the impact of institutional and community settings on four fundamental rehabilitation outcomes: client skill gain, client skill loss, client/society benefits, client quality of life, and client satisfaction with services.
Abstract: This paper reviews research studies that compare client outcome of institutional versus alternative placements. No conclusions about long term across the board clear cut superiority of one type of placement over the other can be drawn. An outcome model of rehabilitation effectiveness for both institutional and alternative settings is proposed to assess the impact of institutional and community settings on four fundamental rehabilitation outcomes: (1) client skill gain, (2) client/society benefits, (3) client quality of life, and (4) client satisfaction with services.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examine the concept of community alternatives to institutions for older people from the theoretical vantage point of the need to optimize the mix of challenge and support in matching the residential environment to individual need.
Abstract: This paper examines the concept of community alternatives to institutions for older people from the theoretical vantage point of the need to optimize the mix of challenge and support in matching the residential environment to individual need. Research is reviewed on the characteristics of people inhabiting different types of residential environments and on the impacts such environments have on older people. A variety of residential types (planned independent housing, congregate housing, mobile homes, hotels, small-scale congregate residences, and more institutional varieties) are discussed as means for increasing the degree of choice among residences afforded the older person.
TL;DR: From the data gathered from the centers it is clear that women are receiving crisis intervention and supportive services immediately following a rape incident, however, the areas of crisis counseling and long term follow-up remain problematic.
Abstract: This paper reviews the literature on the crisis and the aftermath of rape. This review suggests that women experience both short and long term psychological difficulties as a result of being raped. Two questionnaires were sent to various rape crisis centers across the country in an attempt to identify the nature and extent of services provided by the centers, to determine the number of rape victims seen at the centers, and to understand some of the problems confronted by the service providers. From the data gathered from the centers it is clear that women are receiving crisis intervention and supportive services immediately following a rape incident. However, the areas of crisis counseling and long term follow-up remain problematic. It was found that 62% of rape victims received one follow-up contact, 33% received two to five follow-up contacts and only 8% received six or more follow-up contacts. Differences found based on center location and staffing patterns are also discussed. Language: en
TL;DR: In this article, the authors compare the history and current status of deinstitutionalization efforts for the mentally ill, criminal offenders, and the aged in need of long-term care.
Abstract: This article compares the history and current status of deinstitution-alization efforts for the mentally ill, criminal offenders, and the aged in need of long-term care. Evidence from other articles in this issue, and elsewhere, suggests that similar ideologies of deinstitutionalization have guided thinking for all three groups but that practices have diverged. Only the mentally ill have moved out of institutions in large numbers, and, for all three groups, many “alternatives” differ little from institutions. Society regards all three groups negatively, but with differences that are reflected in treatment goals. Effective technologies for community treatment are available for the mentally ill, and methods for preventing institutionalization are available for the aged, but few members of even these groups receive such services. The divergence between ideology and practice for the three groups highlights both the constructive force of ideology in guiding policy and research, and its capacity to distort common perceptions of practice.