Showing papers in "Journal of Social Issues in 1989"
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present an integrative model of applied behavior analysis and social marketing as a potential approach to large-scale and long-term intervention for environmental protection, including education, prompting, modeling, goal setting and commitment, and engineering and design strategies.
Abstract: Basic principles of applied behavior analysis and social marketing are reviewed with reference to the development of action plans to protect the environment. Behavior-change procedures that have targeted environmental preservation are categorized as antecedent interventions (including education, prompting, modeling, goal setting and commitment, and engineering and design strategies) or consequence procedures (i.e., reinforcement and punishment). Although past behavior analysis research has demonstrated environmental benefits from applying certain behavior-change interventions, those studies were small-scale and short-lived. This paper offers an integrative model of applied behavior analysis and social marketing as a potential approach to large-scale and long-term intervention for environmental protection. The market analysis and segmentation phases of social marketing, for example, allow for the specialization of behavior-change strategies for particular target groups. This integration requires increased collaboration between behavior analysts and environmental psychologists who study the correlation of individuals' environmental concern and action with their attitudinal, demographic, and personality characteristics. A plea is made to replace armchair theorizing with interdisciplinary and intervention-focused environmental research.
231 citations
TL;DR: The authors argue that gender differences in entitlement contribute to toleration of injustice among underpaid female workers and foster cultural beliefs regarding what is appropriate pay for male and female workers, and serve as sources of potential bias in job evaluation plans.
Abstract: This article addresses the role of comparison processes in the persistence of the gender wage gap, its toleration by those most disadvantaged by it, and resistance to comparable worth as a corrective strategy. It proposes that the gender segregation of jobs and the underpayment of women and women's jobs lead women and men to use different comparison standards when evaluating what they are entitled to receive in terms of pay for work. I argue that gender differences in entitlement contribute to toleration of injustice among underpaid female workers, foster cultural beliefs regarding what is appropriate pay for male and female workers, and serve as sources of potential bias in job evaluation plans. In addition, a variety of structural, cognitive, and affective factors encourage individuals to compare within groups, to regard ingroup members as the most relevant and legitimate comparative referents, and to inhibit the outgroup comparisons that lie at the heart of the comparable worth strategy.
120 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a model-guided procedure for obtaining public input with respect to such intangibles as aesthetic values in the visual environment is presented. But this procedure differs from current practice in a number of respects.
Abstract: In the process of making environmental decisions, many intangible qualities of considerable psychological significance tend to be ignored. The difficulty of measuring intangibles and the frustration inherent in commonly used methods of obtaining public input are major obstacles to correcting this unfortunate situation. In this paper we suggest a strategy for overcoming these difficulties. A procedure is presented for obtaining public input with respect to such intangibles as aesthetic values in the visual environment. Several examples illustrate how the approach has been applied. The procedure differs from current practice in a number of respects. The Reasonable Person Model, offered here as a psychologically more appropriate framework than the widely adopted Rational Man position, provides both a rationale for these differences and a guide to their implementation. This model-guided procedure can (a) make public concerns more articulate, (b) make better use of the talents of the environmental professional, and (c) make the process considerably more satisfying for all concerned.
97 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the major coordinating approaches that have been developed, analyzes barriers to their implementation based on insights from the policy sciences and other literatures, and examines the basis of coordination's appeal as a service system reform strategy.
Abstract: Chronic mentally ill persons in the community depend on an array of psychological, social, and medical support services that are delivered by public and private sources and are under the auspices of different levels of government. In response to problems of fragmentation and disorganization of these services, improved coordination has emerged as a major objective of contemporary mental health policymaking. This article describes the major coordinating approaches that have been developed, analyzes barriers to their implementation based on insights from the policy sciences and other literatures, and examines the basis of coordination's appeal as a service system reform strategy.
93 citations
TL;DR: The authors used data from published reports as well as previously unpublished studies to demonstrate that such biases affect how individual citizens of the United States and the U.S. media process information regarding the actions of the Soviet Union.
Abstract: Several studies have demonstrated that once people perceive an individual or group as hostile or threatening, i.e., as an “enemy,” biases enter their processing of information in regard to the actions of that individual or group. These biases may affect any phase of social information processing, including attention, encoding, memory, assessment of credibility, evaluation of hostility, expectation of future action, and attribution. In this paper, we use data from published reports as well as previously unpublished studies to demonstrate that such biases affect how individual citizens of the United States and the U.S. media process information regarding the actions of the Soviet Union. This bias reinforces and exaggerates the U.S. enemy image of the Soviet Union.
87 citations
TL;DR: It is less clear that deinstitutionalization is still the best way to characterize current mental health long-term care, or the best policy for the future, but some reasons why this is so are explored.
Abstract: Deinstitutionalization is perhaps the most widely recognized term in mental health policy. It has dominated our thinking about policy, especially about mental health long-term care policy, for nearly 30 years. But it is less clear that it is still the best way to characterize current mental health long-term care, or the best policy for the future. In this article, we explore some reasons why this is so, and we present a new picture of current mental health long-term care policy.
78 citations
TL;DR: This article examined the role of value-guided attributions in maintaining those mirror images, whereby the actions of one's own country were attributed to altruistic motives but the identical actions taken by an enemy are attributed to self-serving motives.
Abstract: Previous research suggests that people subscribe to ethnocentric “mirror images” of their own country and enemy countries—one's own country is believed moral, whereas one's enemy is believed diabolical. The present research examined the role of value-guided attributions in maintaining those images, whereby the actions of one's own country are attributed to altruistic motives but the identical actions taken by an enemy are attributed to self-serving motives. In two experiments, American students made value-guided attributions consistent with the moral self-image and the diabolical enemy-image. In a third experiment, by contrast, Canadian subjects attributed Soviet and American actions to the same motives, with the exception that only the United States was perceived as engaging in positive actions for self-serving reasons.
76 citations
64 citations
TL;DR: A review of research on gender and the value of pay indicates that a value-based explanation is needed to account for women's paradoxical contentment with their low pay.
Abstract: Research on gender and pay satisfaction indicates that women are equally satisfied with less pay than men receive—the paradox of the contented working woman. Relative deprivation theory provides a framework for understanding how women's paradoxical contentment may contribute to the gender wage gap: Women may be content because they do not perceive a discrepancy between the pay they “want” and the pay they receive. A review of research on gender and the value of pay, and on gender and pay expectations, indicates that a value-based explanation is needed to account for women's paradoxical contentment with their low pay. Research is described testing the hypothesis that gender differences in the meaning of money influence the value of pay and pay satisfaction, and a preliminary model of pay satisfaction is offered that integrates value-based and comparative-referent explanations of the paradoxically contented woman worker. Implications of gender differences in the value of pay for the issue of comparable worth are discussed.
62 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the effects of social competence, social support, and their interaction in predicting the community integration and well-being of young chronically disabled, mentally ill adults were examined.
Abstract: This study examined the effects of social competence, social support, and their interaction in predicting the community integration and well-being of young chronically disabled, mentally ill adults. The 159 participants, all between the ages of 18 and 45, were residents of New York City's supervised and supportive community residences, and single room occupancy hotels with mental health services. Significant positive relationships were found between social competence and community integration, emotional support and well-being, and community integration and well-being. The interaction of emotional support and community integration was significant in its prediction of well-being. The interaction of social competence and community integration was significant in predicting well-being when emotional support was held constant. Implications for housing, research, and policy for community care are discussed.
62 citations
TL;DR: The authors explored two plausible theories about anti-Soviet attitudes in the United States: (a) primarily ideological, reflecting hostility toward socialism and communism as social systems, or (b) that they are mainly a function of U.S. nationalism, indicating that the Soviets are viewed as national rivals in a competition for world dominance.
Abstract: National survey questions have been asked in the United States about the Soviet Union since 1937, with repeated use of standard global favorability questions by Gallup since 1953 and by NORC since 1974. Americans expressed declining negativity toward the Soviets from 1953 until 1974, then rising hostility until 1982–1983, with another decline between 1983 and 1988. Problems in interpreting such survey data are discussed, including discrepancies between closed and open questions. Although closed questions elicit generally negative attitudes, there is reason to question their salience and depth, just as Stouffer (1955) did in interpreting attitudes toward domestic communists during the McCarthy period. Survey data are used to explore two plausible theories about anti-Soviet attitudes in the United States: that such attitudes are (a) primarily ideological, reflecting hostility toward socialism and communism as social systems, or (b) that they are mainly a function of U.S. nationalism, indicating that the Soviets are viewed as national rivals in a competition for world dominance. The available data, although far from adequate to the task, seem more consistent with the nationalism explanation.
TL;DR: In this paper, three cases are described to show how attitude studies can play a role in environmental management, helping to set user limits for float trips on the Colorado River, establish the feasibility of an earlier deer-hunting season in northwestern Wisconsin, and develop a plan to clean up a polluted lake.
Abstract: Attitude studies are useful for environmental managers because they provide (1) information about public support and beliefs, (2) information about goals necessary to set standards, and (3) information about the current and future behavior of relevant parties. Three cases are described to show how attitude studies can play a role in environmental management—helping to set user limits for float trips on the Colorado River, establish the feasibility of an earlier deer-hunting season in northwestern Wisconsin, and develop a plan to clean up a polluted lake. Because of their utility, it is predicted that the demand for attitude studies as part of environmental management will increase. Information about specific attitudes and beliefs, based on actual experience, is most helpful, and experimental designs in field research can augment information from surveys. In spite of the attitudinal information, two of the projects described here were stopped by organized opposition of a particular interest group. Thus, simple user attitude studies are not sufficient, and a broader array of social science research on environmental management is needed to deal with such influences.
TL;DR: The main empirical focus of these studies was recent U.S. attitudes toward the USSR, which were found to bias the attitude holders' information processing, mostly in predicted ways as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: This paper comments on the approach and findings of the preceding papers on the psychology of enemy images, and presents numerous suggestions about needed and feasible research. The research cited mostly used the approaches of attitude measurement and of social-cognitive theories, including attribution and social identity theories, and it employed various research methods, including survey, quasiexperimental, and experimental methods. The main empirical focus of these studies was recent U.S. attitudes toward the USSR, which were found to bias the attitude holders' information processing, mostly in predicted ways. Nevertheless, available evidence suggests that most of the American public do not have extremely stereotyped, diabolical enemy images of the Soviet Union, its people, or its leaders, and furthermore, that U.S. attitudes toward the USSR are softening rapidly under the impact of events of the last few years. Determinants of anti-Soviet attitudes are discussed, and hypotheses and speculations are presented about the motivations and sources of enemy images generally, how they may be changed, and their larger implications from the standpoint of cognitive and ego-developmental theory.
TL;DR: It is suggested that mental health care focus on helping patients handle everyday problems in living related to housing, jobs, and interpersonal relationships outside state hospitals.
Abstract: This longitudinal study of state mental patients in Chicago investigated patient adjustment to everyday living outside state hospitals. Respondents (N = 313) were interviewed in person at the hospital and at two successive waves in the community, and a wide range of variables was measured. Findings showed that mental patients are overwhelmingly poor, unemployed, and on welfare. A substantial number are homeless, and many resort to criminal behavior as a means of support. The state hospital is often viewed as a place for meals, shelter, and companionship. Only about half of the patients receive help before returning to the hospital, and that help is mostly medication. Those who are younger and have a history of prior institutionalizations are most likely to be readmitted. Patients who refuse to sign into the state hospital are frequently persuaded or coerced to admit themselves “voluntarily” in order to circumvent the complicated involuntary commitment process. It is suggested that mental health care focus on helping patients handle everyday problems in living related to housing, jobs, and interpersonal relationships.
TL;DR: For instance, this paper found that over 80% of respondents thought the Soviet Union can harm us and is our enemy, but only 16% believed it intends us harm, while other countries were considered enemies of United States on grounds of opposing values or policies as often as because of perceived threat or danger from them.
Abstract: In a study of enemy images, 57 introductory psychology students were individually interviewed and tested in the winter of 1985–1986. For most respondents, a personal enemy was someone who does or intends harm to you or betrays you, while incompatible religious or political views do not hinder friendship. In contrast, other countries were considered enemies of the United States on grounds of opposing values or policies as often as because of perceived threat or danger from them. Over 80% of respondents thought the Soviet Union can harm us and is our enemy, but only 16% believed it intends us harm. Stereotypy of enemy image was defined as the proportion of extreme enemy adjectives attributed to the people of a nation. Only 7% of respondents used a majority of their 5 choices from a list of 20 adjectives to attribute stereotyped enemy characteristics to “the Russians,” whereas stereotypy of enemy image for “Nicaraguans” was significantly greater. Results were interpreted as indicating a change in the meaning of the term enemy with the emergence of a generation having no personal experience of conventional wars.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors identify current problems in the community treatment system, which stem from lack of coordination between the deinstitutionalization process and development of the Community Mental Health Centers program, and from the effects of reimbursement mechanisms on client residential placement.
Abstract: State mental health authorities confront many challenges in the post-deinstitutionalization era, especially in assuring appropriate treatment for the most seriously and persistently mentally ill. This paper identifies current problems in the community treatment system, which stem from lack of coordination between the deinstitutionalization process and development of the Community Mental Health Centers program, and from the effects of reimbursement mechanisms on client residential placement. Two New York State program initiatives, Intensive Case Management and Supported Housing, are described to illustrate state efforts to address these problems by reforming the community treatment system. There is an important state role in determining treatment priorities and in contributing to the evolution of models for community treatment.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a theoretical perspective on organizational compliance in the environmental field and analyze the leading bivariate relationships between compliance and independent variables, including communication of regulations, enforcement and characteristics of actors in the compliance event.
Abstract: Noncompliance with environmental law is an immense problem whether evaluated from its incidence or its consequences. Noncompliance often results from the activities of large corporations and agencies and their interactions. This paper presents a theoretical perspective on organizational compliance in the environmental field. It first reviews and analyzes the leading bivariate relationships between compliance and independent variables, including communication of regulations, enforcement, and characteristics of actors in the compliance event. Single factors can be influential in promoting compliance; however, only in rare cases will one psychological, organizational, or economic factor explain business response. Since regulatory systems attain compliance through a variety of routes, a multivariate perspective is offered that integrates several literatures and empirical studies.
TL;DR: This conceptualization can explain and unite many phenomena associated with deinstitutionalization—for example, how its problems resemble those of racial desegregation, why it results in increasing differentiation of types of patients, and how it turned what had formerly been a mental health problem into a broader welfare problem.
Abstract: We propose “policies of inclusion” as a conceptualization of current mental health long-term care policy. Inclusionary policies refer to the fact that deinstitutionalization, and all the policy changes associated with it, resulted in the forcible inclusion back into society of patients formerly excluded by institutional placement. This compelled both society and the patient to change in profound but often unpredicted ways. This conceptualization can explain and unite many phenomena associated with deinstitutionalization—for example, how its problems resemble those of racial desegregation, why it results in increasing differentiation of types of patients, and how it turned what had formerly been a mental health problem into a broader welfare problem. The paper ends with suggestions about future research implied by this conceptualization.
TL;DR: This article examined the role of ingroup biases in the distrust between the United States and the Soviet Union, and how such biases may undermine international relations, and found that U.S. citizens favor their country over the former Soviet Union and interpret government actions in ways that preserve their positive views of the USA and negative view of the USSR.
Abstract: This paper examines the role of ingroup biases in the distrust between the United States and the Soviet Union, and how such biases may undermine international relations. Findings from a questionnaire administered to American community college adults showed that U.S. citizens favor their country over the Soviet Union and interpret government actions in ways that preserve their positive views of the United States and negative views of the USSR. Americans' perceptions of the Soviets were associated with the way they interpreted Soviet actions, and a negative interpretation of Soviet actions was related to policy support for the Strategic Defense Initiative and increased U.S. defense spending. Results also supported the “blacktop illusion”: a view of the other side's leadership as evil and coercive, and its people as controlled or manipulated by their government.
TL;DR: A comparison of deinstitutionalization in different Western nations suggests that the process was stimulated by the opportunity for cost savings created by the introduction of disability pensions and, in some countries, by the postwar demand for labor.
Abstract: More than three decades after the onset of deinstitutionalization in the United States, large numbers of the severely mentally ill receive little or no psychiatric treatment. Many are homeless or in jail, others are housed in boarding homes and nursing homes in conditions scarcely better (if at all) than the back wards of the old state hospitals. Why has this happened? A comparison of deinstitutionalization in different Western nations suggests that the process was stimulated by the opportunity for cost savings created by the introduction of disability pensions and, in some countries, by the postwar demand for labor. Where labor was in short supply, genuinely rehabilitative programs were developed. Where cost saving was the principal motivation, community treatment efforts were weak. In the United States, the tendency to reduce mental hospital beds with minimal community planning was exaggerated by the zeal with which state legislatures embraced the opportunity to pass expenses along to the federal government. Contrary to widespread opinion in American psychiatry, the shift to the community does not appear to have been primarily a response to introduction of the antipsychotic drugs.
TL;DR: Ex-patients do relatively better in facility/community environments that allow their independent outreach, and also where they either share personal characteristics with the dominant social group or the dominant group is able to tolerate behavioral differences.
Abstract: Large numbers of patients leave mental hospitals to become residents of community-based sheltered-care facilities, yet little is known about how they use particular local environments to satisfy their needs and wants. This paper considers a crucial issue in community care placement, person-environment fit, using survey data from interviews with 397 residents in 211 sheltered-care facilities, drawn from 157 census tracts in California. It studies how individual characteristics interact with eight environmental contexts to influence sheltered-care residents' external social integration. The results underline the power of social norms to determine ex-patient outcomes within specific environments. Ex-patients do relatively better in facility/community environments that allow their independent outreach, and also where they either share personal characteristics with the dominant social group or the dominant group is able to tolerate behavioral differences.
TL;DR: In this article, a representative list of such criteria is evaluated in the context of three Western Australian case studies, and it is concluded that such lists are not sufficient to describe or interpret the case studies presented, and that understanding of the role of public participation in environmental planning will be enhanced if it is viewed as a negotiation process.
Abstract: The burgeoning public involvement literature has resulted in a series of criteria being developed by many authors as to how the process “should” be conducted (e.g., public involvement should be instituted early in the planning process). A representative list of such criteria is evaluated in the context of three Western Australian case studies. It is concluded that such lists are not sufficient to describe or interpret the case studies presented, and that understanding of the role of public participation in environmental planning will be enhanced if it is viewed as a negotiation process. Eccles' two-dimensional classification of negotiations may provide a valuable template for this view of public involvement by labeling environmental negotiations along “ideological-distributive” and “internal-external” dimensions. This approach also encourages application of social psychological methodology and theory to research questions such as why individuals participate, what negotiation procedures are preferred, and how the social contexts of environmental problems are defined by the public.
TL;DR: The authors examines the theory and the implementation of comparable worth from all these perspectives, acknowledging the importance of social structural factors that perpetuate discrimination in wages, and it aims to clarify the strengths and weaknesses of comparable-worth as a tool for overcoming that discrimination.
Abstract: During the last 25 years, the wage gap between men and women full-time workers in the United States has commanded much attention. Comparable worth theory asserts that sex segregation in the workplace has unjustly depressed wages in female-dominated jobs. Comparable worth policy is designed to eliminate pay differentials between male- and female-dominated jobs for which the skill, effort, responsibility, and risk are equivalent. Social scientists have important contributions to make to public debate over the theory and practice of comparable worth. Social psychological theorists and labor economists provide models of wage determination. Industrial-organizational psychologists and compensation administrators evaluate jobs for the purpose of setting pay and serve on management–labor negotiating teams. Measurement specialists use their skills to reduce bias in job evaluation. All these professionals sometimes serve as expert witnesses, assisting attorneys in their presentation of evidence in pay litigation. This journal issue examines the theory and the implementation of comparable worth from all these perspectives. The presentation acknowledges the importance of social structural factors that perpetuate discrimination in wages, and it aims to clarify the strengths and weaknesses of comparable worth as a tool for overcoming that discrimination.
TL;DR: In this article, the California State Civil Service showed that the salary structure established in the 1930s explicitly lowered salaries for female-dominated job titles simply because these jobs were filled by women, and this wage structure continues to influence current wages, even while controlling for the wages paid by similar establishments.
Abstract: Analysis of the California State Civil Service indicates that the salary structure established in the 1930s explicitly lowered salaries for female-dominated job titles simply because these jobs were filled by women Moreover, this wage structure continues to influence current wages, even while controlling for the wages paid by similar establishments The stability of the wage structure results from the state's policy of maintaining the relative salary structure, despite conflicting market wages As a result of maintaining this wage structure, female-dominated jobs have been underpaid between $202-$990 million in the period from 1973 to 1986
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors argue that planning is better viewed as an interaction among the planner, the formal political process, and the diverse and often competing interests of various groups in the community.
Abstract: Initially, planning was seen as a rational process, involving the application of objective methods and data to issues of environmental policy. More recently, the dynamic nature of the planning process has been acknowledged. We argue it is better viewed as an interaction among the planner, the formal political process, and the diverse and often competing interests of various groups in the community. We discuss the implications of this view of planning for planners and psychologists. We then present a case study of water demand management that illustrates how psychologists can contribute to the planning process. Finally, an overview of this journal issue is presented that highlights the major points of each article.
TL;DR: Comparable worth is a necessary and feasible remedy for the systematic, sex-related pay inequities found in most contemporary work organizations as discussed by the authors, and it is feasible because it can be assessed and implemented simply, often using data already available, at a relatively small cost to the organization.
Abstract: Comparable worth is a necessary and feasible remedy for the systematic, sex-related pay inequities found in most contemporary work organizations. It is necessary because discriminatory pay practices of the past were not fully addressed by equal employment opportunity legislation, and their effects have been perpetuated by conventional pay administration practices. It is feasible because it can be assessed and implemented simply, often using data already available, at a relatively small cost to the organization. Arguments against the necessity of comparable worth are based largely on academic studies of pay discrimination, which differ from comparable worth studies in their context, purpose, methods, and results. Arguments against the feasibility of comparable worth center on potential costs and technical criticisms of comparable worth pay policies, objections contradicted by the facts of actual comparable worth implementation.
TL;DR: In this article, the University of Minnesota's Personnel Department designed its own point-factor plan based on employee values of job worth, which were selected by employee committees, grouped into factors, and weighted by means of a general employee survey.
Abstract: Concerns about the validity and reliability of existing job evaluation plans led the University of Minnesota's Personnel Department to design its own point-factor plan based on employee values of job worth. Items for the new plan were selected by employee committees, grouped into factors, and weighted by means of a general employee survey. The items were turned into a job evaluation questionnaire for employees to use in describing their own positions, and the questionnaire was used to evaluate 1426 positions in a representative set of 125 job classes. These data provided a basis for refining the plan, assessing its validity and reliability, implementing comparable worth, and revising the university's position classification system.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors reviewed existing evidence of sex bias in job evaluation judgments and analyzes research methods that have been used to study the issue, concluding that there is little or no evidence of either direct bias or sex-of-rater bias.
Abstract: This article reviews existing evidence of sex bias in job evaluation judgments and analyzes research methods that have been used to study the issue. There are three potential sources of bias in job evaluation: (1) direct bias—jobs held predominantly by females are judgmentally underevaluated relative to predominantly male jobs with the same content; (2) indirect bias—job evaluation judgments are influenced by knowledge of potentially discriminatory current wages; and (3) sex-of-rater bias. Results of the empirical studies reviewed provide little or no evidence of either direct bias or sex-of-rater bias. However, consistent support was found for indirect bias in job evaluation: Jobs perceived as high paying are typically assigned higher job evaluation points (or higher pay rates) than those perceived as low paying. Methodological issues in the study of job evaluation are also discussed, particularly the dilemma of attempting to manipulate pay level and job sex in realistic ways (for high external validity) that are also effective and believable to subjects (for high internal validity).
TL;DR: Deinstitutionalization is a concept with multiple definitions and referents, and focused efforts must be made to remove some of the vagueness from this complex concept.
Abstract: Deinstitutionalization is a concept with multiple definitions and referents, and focused efforts must be made to remove some of the vagueness from this complex concept. An adequate definition of deinstitutionalization includes three primary processes: depopulation, or the shrinking of state hospital censuses; diversion, or the deflection of potential institutional admissions to community-based service settings; and decentralization, or the broadening of responsibility for patient care from a single service entity to multiple service entities, with an attendant fragmentation of authority. Deinstitutionalization is a fact, a process, and a philosophy, and disjunctions among these aspects of the phenomenon must be reconciled.