Showing papers in "Journal of Social Issues in 2013"

Cultural Schemas, Social Class, and the Flexibility Stigma

Abstract: Flexibility programs have become widespread in the United States, but their use has not. According to a recent study, 79% of companies say they allow some of their employees, and 37% officially allow all or most of their employees, to periodically change starting or quitting times (Galinsky, Bond, & Sakai, 2008). Although researchers often regard the official availability of flexibility and other work–life policies as an indicator of an organization’s responsiveness to employees’ work–life concerns (Davis & Kalleberg, 2006), having policies on the books does not always mean that workers feel comfortable using these policies (Blair-Loy, Wharton, & Goodstein, 2011). Studies that have assessed usage rates generally find that usage rates are low. This has proved a remarkably resilient problem. The basic forms of workplace flexibility have been around for decades: flextime, part-time schedules, compressed workweeks, job shares (Friedman, n.d.). Yet usage of these programs

Uncertainty, Threat, and the Role of the Media in Promoting the Dehumanization of Immigrants and Refugees

Abstract: Immigration policies and the treatment of immigrants and refugees are contentious issues involving uncertainty and unease. The media may take advantage of this uncertainty to create a crisis mentality in which immigrants and refugees are portrayed as “enemies at the gate” who are attempting to invade Western nations. Although it has been suggested that such depictions promote the dehumanization of immigrants and refugees, there has been little direct evidence for this claim. Our program of research addresses this gap by examining the effects of common media portrayals of immigrants and refugees on dehumanization and its consequences. These portrayals include depictions that suggest that immigrants spread infectious diseases, that refugee claimants are often bogus, and that terrorists may gain entry to western nations disguised as refugees. We conclude by discussing the implications of the findings for understanding how uncertainty may lead to dehumanization, and for establishing government policies and practices that counteract such effects.

Penalizing Men Who Request a Family Leave: Is Flexibility Stigma a Femininity Stigma?

Abstract: Men who request a family leave are viewed as poor organizational citizens and ineligible for rewards. In addition to a poor worker stigma, we found that male leave requesters suffer femininity stigma. Compared with control targets, male leave requesters were viewed as higher on weak, feminine traits (e.g., weak and uncertain), and lower on agentic masculine traits (e.g., competitive and ambitious). Perceptions of weakness uniquely predicted greater risk for penalties (e.g., being demoted or downsized) and fully accounted for the effect of poor worker stigma on male leave requesters’ penalties. By contrast, the poor worker stigma and both agency and weakness perceptions contributed to their reward recommendations. Results were comparable regardless of the reason given for requesting a family leave, target race (White or Black), and participant gender. The implications of these findings for work–life balance and gender equality are discussed.

Fathers and the Flexibility Stigma

Abstract: Women face an earnings penalty associated with motherhood but researchers have paid scant attention to how fatherhood might influence men's long-term earnings. Using multiple waves of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth and employing ordinary least squares regression and fixed effects models we investigate what happens to men who modify their employment for family reasons. Previous research shows that men work longer hours and earn more after becoming fathers, but if men are unemployed or reduce work hours for family reasons, they could experience a “flexibility stigma” depressing earnings and limiting future career opportunities. We find strong support for the flexibility stigma hypothesis. Controlling for the effects of age, race, education, intelligence, occupation, job tenure, work hours, health limitations, marital status, and number of children, we find that men who ever quit work or are unemployed for family reasons earn significantly less than others in the future. Theoretical reasons for observed findings are discussed.

Determinants of radicalization of Islamic youth in the Netherlands: personal uncertainty, perceived injustice, and perceived group threat

Abstract: In this study among Dutch Muslim youth (N = 131), we focus on the process of radicalization. We hypothesize that this process is driven by three main factors: (a) personal uncertainty, (b) perceived injustice, and (c) perceived group threat. Using structural equation modeling, we demonstrate that personal uncertainty, perceived injustice, and group-threat factors are important determinants of a radical belief system (e.g., perceived superiority of Muslims, perceived illegitimacy of Dutch authorities, perceived distance to others, and a feeling of being disconnected from society). This radical belief system in turn predicts attitudes toward violence by other Muslims, which is a determinant of own violent intentions. Results are discussed in terms of the role of individual and group-based determinants of radicalization.

Uncertainty–identity theory: Extreme groups, radical behavior, and authoritarian leadership.

Abstract: This article describes uncertainty–identity theory's analysis of how self-uncertainty may lead, through social identity and self-categorization processes, to group and societal extremism. We provide details of empirical evidence from direct tests of the theory that focus on four aspects of extremism: (1) studies of self-uncertainty and student support for extreme campus protest groups that promote a radical agenda; (2) studies of uncertainty, identity centrality, and support for violent group action in the context of the Israel–Palestine conflict; (3) studies of the role played by self-uncertainty in support for leadership per se and for authoritarian leadership in particular; and (4) studies of the conjunction of group-membership factors that lead specific individuals within a group to go to greater extremes than others on behalf of the group. The article ends with a discussion of policy implications and principles that might help prevent uncertainty leading, through group identity processes, to societal extremism.

When Equal Isn't Really Equal: The Masculine Dilemma of Seeking Work Flexibility

Abstract: Two studies explored gender-relevant expectations and consequences of seeking flexible work arrangements. Study 1 examined preferences and expectations of students nearing the job market. While men and women valued work flexibility and work–life balance equally, women reported greater intentions to seek flexibility in their careers. Intentions were predicted by projected perceptions on gender-relevant traits. In Study 2, participants evaluated hypothetical targets who sought a flexible work arrangement after the birth of a child. Flexibility seekers were given lower job evaluations than targets with traditional work arrangements; however, they were also seen as warmer and more moral. Men may be particularly penalized at the character level, as flexibility seekers were seen as less masculine and rated lower on masculine prescriptive traits and higher on feminine prescriptive traits. Together these studies suggest that while men value work flexibility they may be reluctant to seek it because of (potentially well-founded) fears of stigmatization.

Workplace Mistreatment of Middle Class Workers Based on Sex, Parenthood, and Caregiving

Abstract: Research suggests that women, but not men suffer negative professional consequences if they have children. These unequal consequences can be attributed to stereotypes about women’s and men’s roles as caregivers and breadwinners for their families, respectively. Two field studies of workplace mistreatment among middle-classemployeesexaminedwhetherfatherswhoviolatethesegenderstereotypes by actively caregiving for their families suffer negative consequences at work. Study 1 (N = 232) examined not man enough harassment (being derogated as insufficiently masculine) and Study 2 (N = 451) examined general forms of mistreatment. Results showed that caregiving fathers experience more harassment and mistreatment than traditional fathers and than men without children. Women without children experience more harassment and mistreatment than mothers, and mothers who spend less time on caregiving experience more harassment and mistreatment than mothers who spend more time on caregiving. We discuss implications for theory and practice. Plenty of anecdotes exist about men getting teased and put down if they take leave, exercise flexible work options, or signal in other ways that they take care of children. An employee at a public utility company who took 3 weeks off when his second child was born explained, “Comments were made and my work

Uncertainty and the Roots of Extremism

Abstract: Extremism in society is the source of enormous human suffering and represents a significant social problem. In this article, we make a case for the urgency of understanding the psychology of societal extremism, discuss the diverse forms that extremism can take, and identify uncertainty as a correlate of and quite possibly precondition for extremism. We discuss the concept of uncertainty and the burgeoning social psychological research on uncertainty and its links with various forms of extremism. Thus, this article frames and contextualizes the subsequent articles in this issue of the Journal of Social Issues, on the psychology of the relationship, and possible causal link, between uncertainty and societal extremism.

The “Never Again” State of Israel: The Emergence of the Holocaust as a Core Feature of Israeli Identity and Its Four Incongruent Voices

Abstract: For the vast majority of contemporary Israelis, the Holocaust is an acquired memory. However, over the years its presence has not diminished but rather is on the rise. We describe how perceptions of the Holocaust have changed from “what Israeliness is not” in the 1940s and 1950s to a core element in Israeli identity. Inspired by Bauer, we present four different and sometimes incompatible voices related to the Holocaust that greatly affect the Israeli society. They are: Never be a passive victim; never forsake your brothers; never be passive bystander; and never be a perpetrator. Experimental evidence related to these voices is also described.

The All-or-Nothing Workplace: Flexibility Stigma and “Opting Out” Among Professional-Managerial Women

Abstract: Using a model of the stigmatization of flexible work based on status legitimation theory, we analyze the experiences of a sample of 54 mothers who “opted out” of professional jobs. Qualitative text analysis reveals that features of women's workplaces are conducive to the creation and maintenance of flexibility stigma and bias and that women working flexibly are subjected to various forms of stigmatizing treatment, which plays a role in their decision to suspend their careers. We find limited evidence, however, that women perceive high levels of stigma and differential treatment as reflecting bias or prejudice. Instead, the majority appears to accept the legitimacy of professional time norms and view their treatment as justifiable. We identify factors that moderate or inhibit their perception of flexibility bias, as distinct from stigma per se, and discuss the limitations of our research as well as its implications for future research and policy.

Ask and Ye Shall Receive? The Dynamics of Employer-Provided Flexible Work Options and the Need for Public Policy

Abstract: This article addresses two fundamental questions about flexible scheduling: Do managers use ascriptive information in deciding which requests for flexible work scheduling to grant among employees? And, do employees comprehend this managerial bias in deciding whether to ask for flexible work arrangements? Study 1 found that managers were most likely to grant flextime to high-status men seeking flexible schedules in order to advance their careers. In contrast, flexible scheduling requests from women were unlikely to be granted irrespective of their job status or reason. In Study 2, we found that employees were unaware of these managerial biases: women assigned high-status jobs and requests for career advancement reasons were the most likely to think their requests would be granted, while men in the same scenarios were least likely to believe this. Organizational and policy implications are discussed.

Compensatory Control and Its Implications for Ideological Extremism

Abstract: This article outlines and reviews evidence for a model of compensatory control designed to account for the motivated belief in personal and external sources of control. In doing so, we attempt to shed light on the content and strength of ideologies, including extreme libertarian, nationalist, socialist, and religious fundamentalist ideologies. We suggest that although these ideologies differ in their content they commonly function to provide people with a sense of control over otherwise random events. We propose that extreme ideologies of personal control (e.g., libertarianism) and external control (e.g., socialism, religious fundamentalism) are equifinal means of meeting a universal need to believe that things, in general, are under control—that is, that events do not unfold randomly or haphazardly. We use this model to explain how the adoption and strength of ideologies of personal and external control may vary across temporal and sociocultural contexts.

National Narrative and Social Psychological Influences in Turks’ Denial of the Mass Killings of Armenians as Genocide

Abstract: This article sheds light on the nature of the Turkish denial of Armenian mass killings. A survey study investigates Turkish students’ construals (i.e., attributions of responsibility and perceived severity of harm) of Turkish massacres of Armenians at the beginning of the 20th century. The results demonstrated a high correspondence between participants’ individual construals and the Turkish official narrative of the events. Structural equation modeling indicated that in-group glorification, perceived in-group threat, and positive attitudes toward war predicted less acknowledgment of in-group responsibility, which in turn predicted less support for reparations of the harm inflicted on Armenians. The study highlights the influence of government-sponsored national self-images in the production and endorsement of legitimizing narratives of the in-group’s violence. The findings call for research that examines the combined influence of psychological and societal mechanisms on people’s beliefs about in-group actions.

Anxious Uncertainty and Reactive Approach Motivation (RAM) for Religious, Idealistic, and Lifestyle Extremes

Abstract: Reactive Approach Motivation (RAM) theory proposes that the personal uncertainty arising from motivational conflict causes anxiety, and that anxiety draws people to extremes because extremes activate approach-motivated states that automatically downregulate anxiety. Five new studies consolidate existing evidence for the RAM view of uncertainty-related threats and reactive extremism. In Studies 1–3, religious, idealistic, and RAM reactions after agentic, communal, and mortality threats were most extreme when threat-relevant goals had been implicitly primed to create motivational conflict. In Study 4 uncertainty predicted extreme reactions only if goal conflict had been experimentally manipulated. In Study 5 personal uncertainty uniquely predicted lifestyle extremes among undergraduates whose educational goals were conflicted by a labor disruption at their university. Results converge on the conclusion that uncertainty-related threats cause defensively extreme RAM reactions only if they arouse personal uncertainty about active goals. Results suggest that policies and programs to support the prosocial and/or nonextreme goals, ideals, and identifications of at-risk people would reduce their motivation for antisocial extremism.

Moral Immemorial: The Rarity of Self-Criticism for Previous Generations’ Genocide or Mass Violence

Abstract: Partly in response to political leaders’ public expressions of self-criticism for past generations’ genocide or other mass violence, psychologists have suggested that individuals who are psychologically connected to perpetrators may view themselves as sharing some responsibility. Such broadened self-perception should enable self-criticism for past failures just as it enables self-congratulation for past triumphs. We review studies of self-criticism regarding European colonization (of Africa, the Americas, Australia, and Indonesia) and 20th century genocide (in Bosnia, Germany, Norway, and Rwanda). Self-criticism—feelings of guilt, shame, and responsibility; wanting reparation—tended to be low. Self-criticism appeared to be lowest among nonstudent samples, those allowed to explicitly disagree with self-criticism, and those asked about more recent violence. Theoretical and practical implications of these patterns are discussed.

Stereotyping Low-Wage Mothers Who Have Work and Family Conflicts

Abstract: This article examines the views of low-wage mothers about how they are stereotyped when they need work flexibility to care for children. From a decade of qualitative and participative research with low-income/working class mothers (n = 300) and employers (n = 50) of entry-level workers, a discourse of “personal irresponsibility” emerged rather than one about work/family conflict. Drawn from interviews and interpretive focus groups, mothers describe being unable to find or buy stable care for children, thus facing trouble at work. While some employers expressed sympathy, others echoed “welfare mother” schema and dismissed low-wage mothers’ conflicts caring for children as the fault of irresponsible reproducers. Implications for a cross-class work/family movement are discussed.

Culture and Extremism

Abstract: Much research in the last several decades has examined the social, political, and economic factors that predict terrorism, yet to date, there has been little attention to cultural factors and their relationship to terrorism. We present findings from the Global Terrorism Database showing how numerous cultural dimensions identified in the cultural psychology literature relate to over 80,000 terrorist attacks that occurred between 1970 and 2007. Controlling for economic and religious variables, our results suggest that fatalistic beliefs, rigid gender roles, and greater tightness are related to a greater number of terrorist attacks or fatalities. While fatalism and low gender egalitarianism were related to the overall number of terrorist incidents and fatalities, cultural tightness was related the overall lethality of events, i.e., fatalities per incident. We discuss theoretical and practical implications of our findings.

Pathways Housing First for Homeless Persons with Psychiatric Disabilities: Program Innovation, Research, and Advocacy

Abstract: This article describes how the Pathways Housing First (PHF) model of homelessness intervention evolved from a radical idea to the gold standard of service delivery for homelessness intervention programs that serve adults with psychiatric and/or substance abuse diagnoses, not only in the United States, but worldwide. Through the example of PHF we explain how the integration of rigorous research with consumer-driven service delivery yielded an evidence-based practice that transformed social policy and created social change. We explain how the research was used to persuade key champions and stakeholders to support funding for and dissemination of this new model of service delivery. We emphasize the practices and strategies that maximized the model’s impact validity, and note some of the key challenges that were faced along the way. Through the example of PHF we aim to increase understanding of how research can be used as a tool to achieve social and political change. In 1992, the Housing First model was introduced by the New York Citybased nonprofit organization “Pathways to Housing,” marking the beginning of a radical—and controversial—departure from the standard homelessness intervention services provided to adults with psychiatric diagnoses and substance abuse problems. Five aspects of this model made it radical. First, it revolutionized the order in which housing and services are delivered to homeless adults with

“Crime against Humanity” or “Crime against Jews”? Acknowledgment in Construals of the Holocaust and Its Importance for Intergroup Relations

Abstract: This article examines the consequences of different representations of the Holocaust for intergroup relations, focusing on the role of acknowledgment of different groups’ fate that is inherent in these construals. Holocaust representations have become increasingly universal. Research on recategorization suggests prosocial outcomes of such superordinate representations. However, among minority groups, acknowledging both superordinate and subgroup identities may be crucial in order to prevent backlash. An experimental study among Jewish and non-Jewish participants (N = 163) was conducted to test these ideas. As hypothesized, prosocial responses to outgroup victims of collective violence and acknowledgment of their suffering increased among Jewish participants when both a superordinate categorization of the Holocaust and subgroup (Jewish) fate were presented, compared to when only one of these categorizations were used. Conversely, different categorizations did not affect outcomes among the control group. Practical implications for intergroup relations and memorialization in the aftermath of genocide are discussed.

Reconciliation through the Righteous: The Narratives of Heroic Helpers as a Fulfillment of Emotional Needs in Polish−Jewish Intergroup Contact

Abstract: Postwar Polish−Jewish relations are heavily affected by divergent narratives about the Holocaust. Debates about the role of Poles as passive bystanders or perpetrators during the Holocaust have deeply influenced mutual perceptions of Poles and Jews. Previous research has shown that historical issues raised during Polish−Jewish encounters inhibit positive consequences of intergroup contact, mostly due to frustrated emotional needs related to past genocide. The aim of the present intervention was to reconcile young Poles and Israelis by presenting narratives that could change stereotypical thinking about the past. Our results indicate that the narratives of historical rescuers of Jews during WWII allowed overcoming the negative impact of the past on intergroup contact by fulfilling frustrated needs for acceptance among Polish participants. The article discusses the potential role of the heroic helpers’ narrative for reconciliation after mass violence, as it may prevent entitative categorizations of groups as victims, perpetrators, and bystanders.

After the Genocide: Psychological Perspectives on Victim, Bystander, and Perpetrator Groups

Abstract: Interest in the aftermath of genocide and mass violence has increased in the last few years, and some researchers in various subdisciplines of psychology have begun to address this urgent social issue. Genocide and mass violence continue to influence intergroup relations, conflicts, and policy attitudes. Nevertheless, these topics are still understudied. We introduce this issue by providing a brief overview of the scarce psychological research on the aftermath of genocide among members of former victim, perpetrator, and bystander groups. Although this distinction is too simplistic to explain individual behavior during genocide and its aftermath, we hold on to it as a framework for organizing existing scholarship, and because of the ongoing relevance of these social representations in discourse on this topic. The introduction concludes with an overview of the issue and its organization, including a brief summary of each article.

Introducing “Impact Validity”

Abstract: This article introduces and explores the concept impact validity, which is conceptualized as the extent to which research has the potential to play a role in social and political change or is useful as a tool for advocacy or activism Including impact validity in the design of a research project means that, in addition to considering traditional criteria for determining the methodological rigor of research, it is also critical to consider the many related decisions that researchers make when working toward social change In this article, the theory and methodology of impact validity and the assumptions that position impact validity as both a valid scientific approach, and a useful tool for promoting a more engaged social science, are considered A “how to” guide is also provided that offers three guiding principles for enhancing impact validity: the strategic choice of research question, having explicit and realistic strategies for using research, and the strategic framing, communicating, and disseminating of findings

When the Past is Far from Dead: How Ongoing Consequences of Genocides Committed by the Ingroup Impact Collective Guilt

Abstract: In two experimental studies, we examined how the ongoing negative consequences for victims of genocides committed by Germans influence the acceptance of collective guilt in young Germans living today. Experiment 1 showed that collective guilt is undermined when the genocide against the Herero people in Namibia is framed as having no impact on contemporary tribe members. The downstream consequence was reduced reparatory intentions. Extending these results, Experiment 2 replicated these findings in the context of Nazi crimes against Jews. In addition, we manipulated to what degree the compliance with the Holocaust was perceived as intentional, a widely debated issue in Holocaust studies. In line with predictions derived from attribution theory, collective guilt and reparatory intentions were particularly prevalent when the Holocaust was explained as the result of deliberate intentions of the ingroup. Implications for ingroup responses to historical harmdoing are discussed.

Restoring Self in Community: Collective Approaches to Psychological Trauma after Genocide

Abstract: Recovery from the profound negative psychological and spiritual effects of genocide is essential for individuals to live fulfilling lives, engage in reconciliation, and prevent future violence. This article discusses community approaches to trauma recovery that focus on individuals within their social context. It briefly identifies common psychological problems that follow genocide. It then presents constructivist self development theory (CSDT) as a foundation for understanding these effects and the RICH (Respect, Information, Connection, and Hope) framework, based in CSDT, for designing and assessing the effects of post-genocide psychosocial interventions. The article reviews three approaches to collective recovery: a multifamily group approach, a psychoeducational program focused on youth, and a public education program aimed to promote trauma recovery and prevent future violence. The RICH framework is applied to each approach.

Commitment and Extremism: A Goal Systemic Analysis

Abstract: Growing evidence suggests that uncertainty is related to extremism in its various forms. The aim of the present article is to probe the underlying psychological mechanisms of this relation. We begin by considering two disparate definitions of extremism as: (1) expressed zeal/attitude polarity, and (2) deviation from a norm. Zeal constitutes a direct expression of goal commitment, whereas deviant behavior is likely to occur under high commitment because of the greater perceived instrumentality of such behavior to the goal. We discuss a psychological mechanism that implies this increased instrumentality of deviant behavior to its goal. From this perspective, the relation between uncertainty and extremism represents a special case of the general relation between goal commitment and extremism: An aversively high degree of uncertainty augments commitment to the goal of uncertainty reduction. This in turn increases the appeal of extreme expressions seen as effective ways and means to uncertainty reduction.

A Raw Deal: Heightened Liberalism Following Exposure to Anomalous Playing Cards

Abstract: According to the meaning maintenance model, people may respond to meaning violations by affirming unrelated beliefs to which they are committed. While this affirmation generally moves in the direction of social inequality, meaning violations that are not personally threatening—but that nevertheless evoke uncertainty—should evoke a heightened preference for social equality (i.e., a socially liberal judgment). We tested this hypothesis in an experiment that exposed participants to reverse colored playing cards, where participants were subsequently more supportive of Affirmative Action if they were relatively committed to a belief that social inequality is unjust. This study demonstrates that people will make heightened socially liberal judgments following a meaning violation that is not personally threatening, and that is unrelated to the affirmed meaning frameworks.

The Legal and Policy Implications of the “Flexibility Stigma”

Abstract: American workplace law prohibits employment decisions based on gender stereotypes and forbids retaliation against employees who take certain job-protected family leaves. Yet the studies in this Issue documenting the “flexibility stigma” indicate popular perceptions and attitudes that run counter to these legal proscriptions. Three key aspects of the flexibility stigma as documented suggest legal and policy implications. First, because the flexibility stigma is rooted in gender stereotypes, its effects may be litigable under federal law prohibiting sex discrimination in employment. Second, workplace policies that provide leave or flexible scheduling must also recognize and address bias against those who use them or the policies risk being undermined by workers engaging in bias avoidance. Third, the flexibility stigma operates in workplaces across the class spectrum, indicating a greater urgency for public policy to counteract its effects.

Uncertainty and Status-Based Asymmetries in the Distinction Between the “Good” Us and the “Bad” Them: Evidence That Group Status Strengthens the Relationship Between the Need for Cognitive Closure and Extremity in Intergroup Differentiation

Abstract: In this article, we look at how a key index of discomfort with uncertainty—the need for cognitive closure—interacts with perceived group status to influence a key antecedent of extremism: intergroup differentiation. Because high status provides people with a clear basis for superiority claims, we predicted that individuals with a high need for closure would accentuate intergroup differences in favor of the ingroup when they believe the latter to have higher status relative to outgroups. Two studies provided support for this hypothesis. In Study 1, Whites who were high in need for closure differentiated in favor of the ingroup when they perceived a larger status difference between the high-status ingroup and lower-status Black and Latino outgroups. In Study 2, individuals high in need for closure who were randomly assigned to a high-status (vs. low-status) group displayed the same pattern.

Public Engagement, Knowledge Transfer, and Impact Validity

Abstract: Public engagement and knowledge transfer are now necessary supplements to academic research and teaching activity for university-based psychologists in the United Kingdom. However, a “deficit model” of public understanding is often assumed by national policies. We argue that bidirectional approaches between researchers and concerned communities are necessary, and that bidirectional transfer recognizes different kinds of expertise and experience. We argue further that researchers working in the field of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) psychology have routinely been engaged in bidirectional translational work, by drawing on historical and recent examples. Bidirectional models of knowledge transfer do not resolve all of the potential problems that arise during public engagement. For example, it is not clear how academics should respond when end users do not accept their findings. However, involving concerned communities is clearly necessary to achieving, and maximizing, impact validity and LGBT psychologists have long been at the forefront of so doing.