Showing papers in "Journal of the Optical Society of America in 1970"
TL;DR: In this paper, a diffraction integral is derived which relates the electromagnetic fields on the input plane of a lens system to those on its output plane, which indicates a connection between ray optics and diffraction theory.
Abstract: This paper deals with the propagation of coherent light through lens systems; it relates diffraction theory to ray optics. A diffraction integral is derived which relates the electromagnetic fields on the input plane of a lens system to those on its output plane. The kernel of the diffraction integral is written in terms of the elements of the ray matrix that describes the complete lens system; that kernel indicates a connection between ray optics and diffraction theory. It also provides a simple method for writing the diffraction integral for a lens system. The results are limited to the paraxial-ray approximation, but apply to symmetric and asymmetric lens systems. In the case of asymmetric systems, i.e., those containing rotated elliptical or cylindrical lenses, the ray-matrix formalism is extended so as to use a single fourth-order matrix. The diffraction integrals derived are applied to optical spatial filtering, optical-beam waveguides, optical resonators, and holography.
1,145 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a theory of the prism-film coupler is presented, and the physical principles involved are illustrated by a method that combines wave and ray optics, where the modes in the thin-film light guide and their modification by the effect of coupling are studied.
Abstract: A prism–film coupler has been discussed recently by Tien, Ulrich, and Martin as a device to couple efficiently a laser beam into thin-film dielectric light guides. This coupler also allows an accurate measurement of the spectrum of propagating modes from which the refractive index and the thickness of the film can be determined. We present here a theory of the prism–film coupler. The physical principles involved are illustrated by a method that combines wave and ray optics. We study the modes in the thin-film light guide and their modification by the effect of coupling. We also calculate the field distributions in the prism and the film, the power transfer between the prism and the film, and derive a condition of optimum operation. In one example, 81% of the laser power can be fed into any desired mode of propagation in the film.
733 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the problem of light collection is examined from first principles within the framework of geometrical optics, and a generalization of the Abbe sine law appropriate to non-imaging systems is presented.
Abstract: The problem of light collection is examined from first principles within the framework of geometrical optics. From the outset, we distinguish between light collection and the usual theory of image formation. From phase-space considerations, we derive the sine inequality, a generalization of the Abbe sine law appropriate to nonimaging systems. We construct two- and three-dimensional nonimaging systems that reduce the f number to the least allowed by the sine inequality. Such systems give substantially improved light collection as compared with conventional systems.
372 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a prism-film coupler was proposed for a laser beam coupled with high efficiency into a light-guiding thin film by means of a prism reflecting prism.
Abstract: A laser beam can be coupled with high efficiency into a light-guiding thin film by means of a prism–film coupler. Basically this device is a totally reflecting prism, the light-guiding film being separated from the reflecting prism face by a narrow gap of reduced refractive index. This coupling scheme is analyzed in detail by the method of plane-wave expansion. It is shown how the coupling efficiency is determined by the competition between the desired coupling effect and the reverse effect of leakage. A general condition is derived under which the transverse profile of the input beam continues undistorted into the guide. The theory is illustrated for a gaussian beam, which allows a maximum coupling efficiency of 0.80.
354 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the binding energies (ionization energies) of all subshells are given for free atoms up to Z = 108, and X-ray data for solids have been combined with spectroscopic data and work functions, and have been smoothed, interpolated and extrapolated.
Abstract: Binding energies (ionization energies) of all subshells are given for free atoms up to Z = 108. X-ray data for solids have been combined with spectroscopic data and work functions, and have been smoothed, interpolated, and extrapolated.
270 citations
TL;DR: Multiple-scattering theory is specialized for uncorrelated distributions of large, low-refracting, absorbing particles to similarly and randomly aligned spheroids to illustrate how the results can be used in optical diagnostics on suspensions of cells for biomedical purposes.
Abstract: We first specialize multiple-scattering theory for uncorrelated distributions of large, low-refracting, absorbing particles to similarly and randomly aligned spheroids. The theory takes into account backscattering interface effects, but neglects the smaller coherent reflection effects. Then we illustrate how the results can be used in optical diagnostics on suspensions of cells for biomedical purposes. We consider the isolation of molecular absorption coefficients for transmission and reflection oximetry on whole blood, scattering-shifted absorption extrema, cell-membrane fragilometry and the effects of osmotic swelling, and some asymmetrical scattering effects for optical monitoring of cell alignment in fluid-transport processes. In measurements on thin samples at wavelengths corresponding to relatively small absorption, pronounced minima in transmission and maxima in reflection have been observed for suspensions about half-full of cells; we discuss simple approximations that indicate the essentials of the phenomena.
239 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the Abeles treatment of refraction in stratified isotropic media is extended to stratified anisotropic media and applied to the case of a semiconductor in an external magnetic field.
Abstract: The Abeles treatment of refraction in stratified isotropic media is extended to stratified anisotropic media. The present treatment is restricted to linear refraction problems with incident light assumed to be plane waves of infinite extent. A mathematical restriction excludes application to singular cases. Subject to these restrictions, the treatment is quite generally applicable. It is applied to the case of an isotropic semiconductor in an external magnetic field; results agreeing with published experimental data and with an alternative method of calculation for normal incidence are obtained.
213 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a numerical method was developed to correct high-resolution infrared spectra for the distortion introduced by the spectrometer, which involves, first, an accurate determination of the response function and, then, deconvolution by a point-successive over-relaxation procedure.
Abstract: A numerical method has been developed to correct high-resolution infrared spectra for the distortion introduced by the spectrometer. The method involves, first, an accurate determination of the spectrometer response function and, then, deconvolution by a point-successive over-relaxation procedure. The method is applied to portions of the Q branches N2O and CH4 near 3.3 μ. The spectra are observed at pressures below 1.0 torr with spectrometer response-function half-widths less than 0.02 cm−1. The deconvolved spectra show an improvement of resolution which approaches the limit set by the Doppler widths of the lines. Line separations measured from the deconvolved spectra are within 0.001 cm−1 of the calculated values. The reduction of line overlap in the deconvolved spectra considerably increases the number of lines whose positions may be accurately measured.
203 citations
TL;DR: Subjects were presented with two gratings with different spatial frequencies and they were asked to discriminate one from the other, finding that at high spatial frequencies, discrimination deteriorates when differences of subjective contrast are eliminated.
Abstract: Subjects were presented with two gratings with different spatial frequencies and they were asked to discriminate one from the other. Their ability to discriminate between the gratings was found to depend primarily on the ratio of their spatial frequencies over a wide range of absolute frequency. At high spatial frequencies, discrimination deteriorates when differences of subjective contrast are eliminated.
172 citations
TL;DR: Over-all results strongly indicate that the mean of this distribution is a positively accelerated function of Luminance of the test flash, and suggest that the standard deviation is a non-monotonic function of luminance.
Abstract: A rating-scale psychophysical method was employed to obtain receiver operating characteristics for detection and for discrimination of luminance increments. These curves were used to estimate the parameters of a normal probability-density function which was assumed to describe the relevant internal effects of the test flash. The over-all results strongly indicate that the mean of this distribution is a positively accelerated function of luminance of the test flash, and suggest that the standard deviation is a non-monotonic function of luminance. It is argued that quantum fluctuations and criterion fluctuations cannot account for these findings, whereas channel uncertainty may be at the root of some of them.
154 citations
TL;DR: The application of computed temperatures to the prediction of retinal damage is discussed in terms of a maximum temperature-damage criterion, and dependence of these predictions upon the depth of the retinal pigment epithelium is detailed.
Abstract: The heat-conduction equation is used to describe retinal temperature increases produced by the absorption of intense light in the retina and the choroid. Temporal, radial, and axial temperature distributions are presented for both continuous and pulsed light sources operating at 700 nm. A point-spread distribution of retinal irradiance is considered in addition to a wide range of uniform and gaussian distributions. The application of computed temperatures to the prediction of retinal damage is discussed in terms of a maximum temperature-damage criterion, and dependence of these predictions upon the depth of the retinal pigment epithelium is detailed.
TL;DR: In this paper, the properties of the amplitude and illuminance of the images of coherently illuminated diffuse objects are studied, where uniform and non-uniform objects are considered and a linear transformation of a nonstationary gaussian stochastic process followed by a square-law detection is considered.
Abstract: The properties of the amplitude and illuminance of the images of coherently illuminated diffuse objects are studied. Uniform and nonuniform objects are considered. The image illuminance is considered to result from a linear transformation of a nonstationary gaussian stochastic process followed by a square-law detection. Expressions are obtained for the mean, autocorrelation, variance, and spatial power spectral density of the amplitude and of the illuminance. Interpretation of the results led to conclusions concerning the speckle size, the noise power in the image, and the transfer function of an optical system when the object diffuses coherent light. When the autocorrelation width of the random fluctuations of the object amplitude is small compared to the impulse response of the system, the mean illuminance in the image plane is that which would be given by an incoherent object having the same luminance as the object considered; the average speckle size is equal to that of the impulse response of the system; the average transfer function of the system is the incoherent transfer function; and the distribution of the noise spatial frequencies does not depend upon the form of the signal, but only upon its total energy. Other results concerning the image statistics have also been obtained.
TL;DR: In this article, the optically active phonons can be separated into two groups; in one group (above 300 cm−1) the internal vibrations of (R.E.-O6) octahedrons are preponderant, whereas in the other group (below 200 cm− 1) the translational motions of these octahedral and the R.E. ions are dominant.
Abstract: Laser-excited Raman spectra have been observed in single crystals of Y2O3, Y2O3(Eu3+), Er2O3, and YB2O3 at 10, 80, and 300 K. In Y2O3(Eu3+) the symmetries of the excited levels have been determined. The optically active phonons can be separated into two groups; in one group (above 300 cm−1) the internal vibrations of (R.E.-O6) octahedrons are preponderant, whereas in the other group (below 200 cm−1) the translational motions of these octahedrons and the R.E. ions are dominant. In Y2O3(Eu3+) electronic transitions (2F0 → 2F2) of the Eu ions in C3i-site symmetry have been observed and the symmetries of the crystal-field-split levels have been determined. Other effects, which may also be attributed to electronic Raman transitions, have been observed in Er2O3 and Yb2O3.
TL;DR: The optical constants of rapidly grown silver sulfide films approximately 400 A thick have been determined in the wavelength range 0.28-2.5 μ using three independent methods as discussed by the authors, and the measured reflectances of two such films were in reasonable agreement with the calculations, and the reflectance of heavily tarnished silver was essentially the same as that of fresh silver in infrared.
Abstract: The optical constants of rapidly grown silver sulfide films approximately 400 A thick have been determined in the wavelength range 0.28–2.5 μ using three independent methods. A fourth method was used to obtain values of n and k for thin (40 A), naturally grown silver sulfide films on opaque silver in the wavelength range 0.34–0.60 μ. Although these results are probably not representative of bulk silver sulfide, they should be approximately correct for tarnish films on silver. Thus, they can be used to calculate the reflectance as a function of wavelength for silver covered with tarnish films of various thicknesses. The measured reflectances of two such films were in reasonable agreement with the calculations, and the reflectance of heavily tarnished silver was essentially the same as that of fresh silver in the infrared. The measured optical constants of silver sulfide can also be used to calculate the thickness of thin tarnish films from ellipsometric measurements, and to calculate the shift in the surface plasma-resonance frequency when silver is covered with a thin tarnish film.
TL;DR: In this article, the third-order aberration coefficients of a symmetric system may be computed when the lenses are manufactured from glasses with continuously varying refractive indices, and the surface contribution consists of the usual contribution based on the assumption that the media are homogeneous, and an additional term that takes into account the variation of the index along the surface.
Abstract: Various organizations in the United States and abroad are experimenting with techniques for manufacturing glass with a continuously varying refractive index. Use of such glasses in lens design would provide valuable additional degrees of freedom for the control of aberrations. This paper presents formulas by means of which the third-order (monochromatic) aberration coefficients of a symmetric system may be computed when the lenses are manufactured from glasses with continuously varying refractive indices. Each coefficient is expressed as a sum of contributions by each surface separating two distinct media and a sum of integrals over each inhomogeneous medium. The surface contribution consists of the usual contribution based on the assumption that the media are homogeneous, and an additional term that takes into account the variation of the index along the surface.
TL;DR: The absorption spectrum of atomic argon below 1000 A has been investigated with a 6.65m vacuum spectrograph and with the helium continuum for background in this paper, where the expected five ns and nd Rydberg series have been extended as far as lines with n about 50 and greater.
Abstract: The absorption spectrum of atomic argon below 1000 A has been investigated with a 6.65-m vacuum spectrograph and with the helium continuum for background. The expected five ns and nd Rydberg series have been extended as far as lines with n about 50 and greater. The ionization energies obtained are 127 109.9±0.1 cm−1 and 128 541.8±0.3 cm−1 for P2320 and P2120 states of Ar ii, respectively. Strong interactions between nd and nd′ series are observed as perturbations and autoionizations. Six additional (weak) Rydberg series are identified as electric-quadrupole transitions to 3p5np and 3p5nf levels.
TL;DR: In this article, phase holograms have been recorded using several photopolymers using self-developing and self-repairing photopolymer recording systems and requiring only uv-light fixing.
Abstract: Phase holograms have been recorded using several photopolymers. These photopolymer recording systems are self-developing and require only uv-light fixing. Sensitivities as high as 0.6 mJ/cm2 have been achieved with He–Ne–laser light. Reconstructions from 3000-line/mm gratings recorded on these materials have been achieved; however, the signal-to-noise ratio falls off above 1500 lines/mm. Microscopy has revealed that the hologram is recorded both on the surface and in the volume of the polymer, and that the surface modulation provides the dominant contribution to the diffraction efficiency for 25-μm-thick films.
TL;DR: A device is described that provides an electrical signal proportional to the instantaneous refractive power of the human eye that may be used on an undrugged eye and does not interfere with normal visual tasks.
Abstract: Servocontrolled IR optometer providing electrical signal proportional to refractive power of human eye
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors measured reflectance and transmittance of field cotton leaves and predicted linear dimension related to cellular structure, predicting linear dimension of the cellular structure of the leaves.
Abstract: Field cotton leaves reflectance and transmittance measurement, predicting linear dimension related to cellular structure
TL;DR: Energy levels of Th lines computed from weighted averages of interferometrically measured wavelengths data were derived from weighted average of the weighted average energy levels of the Th lines as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Energy levels of Th lines computed from weighted averages of interferometrically measured wavelengths data
TL;DR: In this article, high-speed temperature sensors are used to measure the variation of refractive index at optically important scale sizes, as small as a few millimeters, and the authors demonstrate the use of a single sensor mounted on an airplane to observe refractive-index variations at heights up to 3 km.
Abstract: The aspect of atmospheric turbulence of interest to optical-propagation studies is the variation of refractive index. We demonstrate the application of high-speed temperature sensors to the direct measurement of this variation at optically important scale sizes, as small as a few millimeters. The thermometers, used in pairs with spacings ranging from 3 mm to 1 m, disclose that the turbulence near the ground frequently differs substantially from the Kolmogoroff model, and that the temperature difference does not follow the gaussian probability-distribution function. A model of the turbulent atmosphere containing sharply bounded regions with stronger than average turbulence agrees well with our observations. We also demonstrate the use of a single sensor mounted on an airplane to observe refractive-index variations at heights up to 3 km.
TL;DR: In this paper, a theory of image formation is presented for a large-angle, point reference hologram, whose recording arrangement consists of a surface of arbitrary shape, a point reference source, and the object.
Abstract: A theory of image formation is presented for a large-angle, point reference hologram, whose recording arrangement consists of a surface of arbitrary shape, a point reference source, and the object. The hologram is illuminated by a spherical wave during reconstruction. The resulting image field is similar to that of a Fourier-transform hologram. An exact, integral formulation of monochromatic, scalar diffraction theory is used to find the image field. The hologram is modeled by surface sources determined from the irradiance of the recorded field. The image field produced by the holographic system approximates the field produced by the ideal system, which forms the image of a point object by launching a converging, spherical wave.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors used the beam-foil technique for spectral transitions in B by beam-foil for spectral lines in 450-5000 A range, measuring excited levels mean lives.
Abstract: Electronic transitions in B by beam foil technique for spectral lines in 450-5000 A range, measuring excited levels mean lives
TL;DR: It appears that the most important determiner of flicker detection in small fields is contiguity of field and surround, and both decrease of illuminance and absence of image movement reduced sensitivity at all frequencies.
Abstract: The effect of size, luminance, and image movements on detection of flicker in small centrally located fields was studied with 12°, 1°, and 2° targets at average retinal illuminances of 26, 260, and 2600 td. When these fields were viewed in an essentially dark surround, a maximum of sensitivity was found at approximately 10 Hz. Image movements had no effect in determining sensitivity to flicker, but decreasing field size led to an over-all decrease of sensitivity, and decreasing illuminance enhanced low-frequency sensitivity, while reducing sensitivity to high frequencies. The effect of an illuminated surround was assessed with a 1° field viewed in a steady surround that was either contiguous with the flickering field, or separated from it by a nonilluminated band that subtended 2′ of arc. The condition of a separated surround gave the same results as the dark surround. The contiguous-surround condition yielded a frequency-response curve that showed no clearly defined maximum. However, this condition markedly increased low-frequency sensitivity and altered the effect of luminance and image movements on flicker detection. Both decrease of illuminance and absence of image movement reduced sensitivity at all frequencies. It appears that the most important determiner of flicker detection in small fields is contiguity of field and surround.
TL;DR: In this article, the coupling of a gaussian beam into thin films was investigated utilizing a full wave analysis and the maximum coupling efficiency for a planar structure was found to be 75% and is independent of the phase velocity of the waveguide mode in the film.
Abstract: The coupling of a gaussian beam into thin films is investigated utilizing a full wave analysis. Maximum coupling efficiency for a planar structure is found to be 75% and is independent of the phase velocity of the waveguide mode in the film. Measured coupling values of up to 57% are reported. Coherence properties of the coupling procedure are discussed and optimization of physical parameters is outlined.
TL;DR: In this paper, the amplitude and phase of a scattered field can be determined by holography, and it is estimated that information about details down to about nine wavelengths of light can be obtained by this technique.
Abstract: It is shown how both the amplitude and the phase of a scattered field may be determined by holography. It is estimated that information about details down to about nine wavelengths of light can be obtained by this technique. The result is of importance for unambiguous determination of the three-dimensional structure of semitransparent objects, such as are frequently encountered, for example, in biology.
TL;DR: In this paper, Duntley equations for unidirectionally incident light propagation through diffusing medium were used to account for near IR radiation diurnal variations in corn canopy accounted for by Dussault equations.
Abstract: Near IR radiation diurnal variations in corn canopy accounted for by Duntley equations for unidirectionally incident light propagation through diffusing medium
TL;DR: In this article, a method for determining the response function of an infrared spectrometer under the usual running condition of partially coherent illumination from a thermal source was developed, which consists of deconvolving observed absorption lines of known Doppler shape.
Abstract: A method has been developed for determining the response function of an infrared spectrometer under the usual running condition of partially coherent illumination from a thermal source. The method consists of deconvolving observed absorption lines of known Doppler shape. Only the sample-gas temperature, molecular weight, absorption-line frequency, and equivalent width are needed to construct the true absorptance profile. The response function of a high-resolution spectrometer has been determined by this method at several frequencies in the 3-μ region. It ranged from 0.014 cm−1 to 0.020 cm−1 in width and was typically 6%–20% narrower than the observed absorption line. The entire process was carried out automatically in the computer, with absorptance data in digital form. A procedure due to P. H. van Cittert, which is often used for resolution enhancement, is shown to be a special case of the more-general and efficient relaxation technique used in this study.
TL;DR: Application of solutions to the prediction of thresholds for retinal damage is discussed, and excellent agreement is noted between theoretical predictions and experimental observations of the spectral dependence of chorioretinal damage thresholds.
Abstract: Retinal-temperature increases produced by circularly symmetric exposures to electromagnetic radiation between 400 and 1200 nm were calculated for a wide range of image sizes. Temporal, axial, and radial temperature distributions are described. Constant and exponentially decreasing source strengths are considered. Solutions of the heat-conduction equation are expressed in terms of both retinal irradiance and the total power entering the eye. Application of solutions to the prediction of thresholds for retinal damage is discussed, and excellent agreement is noted between theoretical predictions and experimental observations of the spectral dependence of chorioretinal damage thresholds.