Showing papers in "Journal of Traumatic Stress in 1990"
TL;DR: In this article, the authors discuss therapists' reactions to clients' traumatic material and suggest ways that therapists can transform and integrate these traumatic material in order to provide the best services to clients, as well as to protect themselves against serious harmful effects.
Abstract: Within the context of their new constructivist self-development theory, the authors discuss therapists' reactions to clients' traumatic material. The phenomenon they term “vicarious traumatization” can be understood as related both to the graphic and painful material trauma clients often present and to the therapist's unique cognitive schemas or beliefs, expectations, and assumptions about self and others. The authors suggest ways that therapists can transform and integrate clients' traumatic material in order to provide the best services to clients, as well as to protect themselves against serious harmful effects.
1,872 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the Herald of Free Enterprise ferry disaster has been studied in the context of post-traumatic stress disorder in children. But far less is known of the manifestations of posttraumatic stress reactions in children than in adults.
Abstract: Surprisingly, far less is known of the manifestations of post-traumatic stress reactions in children than in adults. Research over the past 10 years has begun to describe phenomena very similar to PTSD in adults, particularly among young adolescents. This paper will briefly review recent research and will describe our own experiences working with children who survived the Herald of Free Enterprise ferry disaster. Attention will be paid not only to the reactions of the children, but also to the reactions of their families, and to problems experienced subsequently at school. An account will be given of two therapeutic groups run in parallel for children and parents. It is concluded that children, at least in the 8- to 16-year age range, show problems very similar to adult PTSD, but that these will not be picked up by commonly used screening instruments.
342 citations
TL;DR: Fifty-four newly referred psychiatric outpatients were interviewed and a life history of severe traumatic experiences was taken, finding factors relating to the occurrence of PTSS included early trauma, more traumatic events, incest and perceiving the event as frightening.
Abstract: Fifty-four newly referred psychiatric outpatients were interviewed and a life history of severe traumatic experiences was taken. Forty-four gave a positive history, 17 of whom developed symptoms of post-traumatic stress (PTSS). Twelve met a past or current diagnosis of PTSD. Factors relating to the occurrence of PTSS included early trauma, more traumatic events, incest, perceiving the event as frightening, being physically injured, perceiving the event as being life threatening, seeing a physician, and being hospitalized. Age at trauma and differences between men and women are also discussed.
217 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a community sample of 355 adult women were administered the Symptom Checklist-90-Revised and were assessed with structured interviews for a life-time history of criminal victimization and Crime-Related Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder.
Abstract: A community sample of 355 adult women were administered the Symptom Checklist-90-Revised and were assessed with structured interviews for a life-time history of criminal victimization and Crime-Related Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Using a criterion group classification approach, a 28-item scale within the SCL-90-R was developed that successfully discriminated between the CR-PTSD positive and negative respondents. Though replication and further research is needed, the developed scale may be of use for initial screening for CR-PTSD as well as for ongoing clinical assessment and research purposes.
169 citations
TL;DR: Testimony as a ritual both of healing and of condemnation of injustice would seem to be a universal phenomenon as mentioned in this paper and the concept of testimony contains both connotations of something subjective or private, and of something objective, judicial, or political.
Abstract: Testimony as a ritual both of healing and of condemnation of injustice would seem to be a universal phenomenon. The concept of testimony contains both connotations of something subjective or private, and of something objective, judicial, or political. When political refugees give testimony to the torture to which they have been subjected, the trauma story can be given a meaning, can be reframed: private pain is transformed into political dignity. In the context of testimony, shame, and guilt connected with the trauma can be confessed by the victim and reframed. In the transcultural meeting between the political refugee and the Western therapist, the common goal of creating evidence against repression becomes both a meeting place and a joint point of departure. The testimony method is demonstrated by two case histories.
151 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the relationship of PTSD and its symptoms to violence in a sample of 1140 incarcerated male felons, most of whom did not develop PTSD or its symptoms from a combat-related traumatic stressor event was studied.
Abstract: Some previous research with Vietnam combat veterans has found a relationship to subsequent development of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and involvement in violent behavior. The relationship of PTSD and its symptoms to violence have not been studied in nonveteran samples. This article reports the relationship of PTSD and its symptoms to violence in a sample of 1140 incarcerated male felons, most of whom did not develop PTSD or its symptoms from a combat-related traumatic stressor event. A relationship of PTSD and its symptoms to arrest and incarceration for expressive violence is found when demographic, antisocial personality, and problem drinking factors are controlled. For the large majority of those who experienced at least one PTSD symptom and had an arrest history for expressive violence, the PTSD symptom preceded or occurred in the same year as the violence arrest. This temporal ordering is consistent with viewing PTSD symptoms as etiologically relevant to the occurrence of violence.
130 citations
TL;DR: The effects of perceived availability of social support on psychological symptomatology following a natural disaster were studied in a sample of victims of a major flood in Roanoke, Virginia as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: The effects of perceived availability of social support on psychological symptomatology following a natural disaster were studied in a sample of victims of a major flood in Roanoke, Virginia. Ninety-six subjects were administered questionnaires that measured self-reported levels of depression, anxiety, and somatization 1 week after the disaster and four additional times within 6 months after the disaster. A questionnaire mailed 3 months after the disaster assessed perceived availability of social support. Results indicated that subjects experienced severe distress immediately following the disaster, that this distress decreased sharply 6 weeks after the flood, and decreased more gradually in the following months. Perceived availability of social support was not related to distress immediately following the disaster nor 5 months afterwards. Social support and symptomatology were significantly correlated during the intermediate period.
125 citations
TL;DR: A cognitive impairment in post-traumatic patients is suggested, not secondary to alcohol, drug abuse, or head injury, as is the case in normals.
Abstract: Twelve Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) patients, 12 psychiatric patients matched for severity of psychopathology, and 12 normal controls were assessed for cognitive functioning by means of a comprehensive test battery. Both patient groups felt subjectively more impaired than normals. Performance on measures of intelligence, organicity, verbal fluency, memory, and attention was significantly poorer in patients than in normals. The performance of the PTSD patients and that of the psychiatric controls was, however, very similar. The premorbid intelligence of both the PTSD patients and the psychiatric controls was average and had deteriorated significantly by the time of current testing. These cognitive problems were not secondary to alcohol, drug abuse, or head injury. The results suggest a cognitive impairment in post-traumatic patients.
117 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a methodological review of the associative relationship between social support and psychological trauma is presented, focusing on the areas of combat, sexual abuse, and battering, and the relationship between support and human physiology is presented.
Abstract: This paper presents a methodological review of the associative relationship between social support and psychological trauma. Because of the paucity of such studies, this review begins with the findings on the nature of social support, and then the general outcomes of this association. Next, the relationship between support and human physiology is presented. The paper concludes with an evaluation of the research specific to psychological trauma and social support in the areas of combat, sexual abuse, and battering. Methodological issues and limitations are discussed in each section.
103 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a questionnaire was used to compare sleep disturbance in Vietnam War combat veterans having PTSD with non-PTSD patients having insomnia without other PTSD symptoms, and the PTSD group reported symptoms of anxiety, agitation and concurrent body movement which were associated with insomnia.
Abstract: Sleep disturbances, including repetitive nightmares and insomnia, are central and long-lasting aspects of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) This study utilized a questionnaire to compare sleep disturbance in Vietnam War combat veterans having PTSD with non-PTSD patients having insomnia without other PTSD symptoms The PTSD group reported symptoms of anxiety, agitation and concurrent body movement which were associated with insomnia Nightmares of this group were more repetitive and more disruptive of a return to sleep than the non-PTSD insomnia group The PTSD group also reported more fatigue during daytime functioning and more anxiety during waking hours than the non-PTSD insomnia group
102 citations
TL;DR: Preliminary results were interpreted as indicating that DTE, when offered as part of an inpatient milieu, shows promise as an effective treatment for chronic/severe combat veteran PTSD sufferers.
Abstract: Vietnam combat veteran inpatients were evaluated after being treated in a PTSD special treatment unit. Selected pretreatment measures that included mental and physical problems, combat variables, PTSD symptoms, and the standard MMPI scales found no clinically meaningful differences between a group that was found to be “successes” and another group found to be “failures,” based on predetermined cutoff scores on the VETS scale, a reliable outcome measure for veteran patients. At 3 months post-therapy, a significantly greater number of subjects treated with Direct Therapeutic Exposure (DTE) (flooding therapy) as compared to another group treated with a more conventional individual therapy, were identified as “successes” as opposed to “failures,” based on the VETs scale. Also, the number of “failures” was greater for those treated with the more conventional therapy and the number of “successess” was greater for those treated with DTE, when compared to all other subjects in the sample. These preliminary results were interpreted as indicating that DTE, when offered as part of an inpatient milieu, shows promise as an effective treatment for chronic/severe combat veteran PTSD sufferers.
TL;DR: In this article, the degree to which PTSD symptomatology is present in veterans who are inpatients on medical units, the respective rates of PTSD symptoms and psychological distress of combat veterans from WW-II, Korea, and Vietnam, and the extent and nature of psychological disturbance, as measured by the paper and pencil tests, across the three military time periods.
Abstract: Results from recent research point to the need to screen and assess for PTSD in medical as well as psychiatric patients, and to broaden the scope of assessment to include combat veterans of other recent wars, e.g., World War II and Korea. The present study was designed to obtain the following information: (1) the degree to which PTSD symptomatology is present in veterans who are inpatients on medical units, (2) the respective rates of PTSD symptoms and psychological distress of combat veterans from WW-II, Korea, and Vietnam, and (3) the extent and nature of psychological disturbance, as measured by the paper and pencil tests, across the three military time periods. One hundred and sixty-one nonpsychiatric combat and former POW veteran patients served as subjects, with 70.2% having served in World War II, 13.1% having served in Korea, and 16.8% having served in Vietnam. All subjects completed a questionnaire packet which included a demographic data sheet, the Mississippi Scale for Combat-related PTSD, the Symptom Checklist-90-Revised, and the Combat Exposure Scale. Results of the study showed a 24% overall PTSD rate, as determined by subjects' scores on the Mississippi scale. While no differences in combat exposure were found among three war groups, psychiatric disturbance was most apparent among Vietnam veterans. A combination of demographic and psychological factors was found to accurately predict PTSD status. These findings suggest the need to screen and assess all combat veterans who present on medical as well as psychiatric units.
TL;DR: The results showed nonsignificant t-test differences between the two groups in demographic factors and in two CMI scores, Past Illness Symptoms and Family Health History, but significant differences resulted between the groups in perceived current health status.
Abstract: This study was conducted to investigate the long-term physical health implications of sexual assault in the rape victim. Fifty-one sexual assault victims, each with 2 or more years of time elapsed since the rape, responded to a self-administered questionnaire composed of demographics items and the Cornell Medical Index-Health Questionnaire (CMI). The victims were matched by age with a control group of 51 nonvictims. The results showed nonsignificant t-test differences between the two groups in demographic factors and in two CMI scores, Past Illness Symptoms and Family Health History. However, significant differences resulted between the groups in perceived current health status (x2 [df=2,N=102]=11.26,p <0.01) and in the CMI scores of Present Illness Symptoms (t=5.51,p ≤0.01), Negative Health Behaviors (t=6.21,p ≤0.01), and Female Reproductive Physiology Illness Symptoms (t=6.21,p ≤0.01).
TL;DR: This article investigated the psychological aftermath of sexual assault in a probability sample of university women, with an emphasis on how various aspects of a victim's lifetime sexual assault history and their relationship with their assailant(s) mediate posttraumatic recovery.
Abstract: The present study investigated the psychological aftermath of sexual assault in a probability sample of university women, with an emphasis on how various aspects of a victim's lifetime sexual assault history and their relationship with their assailant(s) mediate posttraumatic recovery. Victims were almost twice as likely as nonvictims to meet given criteria for a psychiatric case. Surprisingly, date rape victims were as distressed as victims of chronic childhood assault, possibly because of the ambiguous nature of the assault circumstance. Also, repeated victimization was related to denial, a symptom of posttraumatic stress. Denial was discussed in regard to the likelihood of its increasing the risk of revictimization.
TL;DR: The post-traumatic patients had poorer sleep: decreased sleep efficiency, increase in number of awakenings, and decreased SWS, as well as longer REM latency, adding further support for the inclusion of sleep difficulties in the definition of the Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder.
Abstract: The purpose of the present study was to investigate the sleep of people diagnosed as suffering from chronic Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). The sleep of seven chronic post-traumatic patients with no known physical injuries was compared with that of seven matched control subjects. The post-traumatic patients had poorer sleep: decreased sleep efficiency, increase in number of awakenings, and decreased SWS, as well as longer REM latency. It was also found that their complaints correlated with relevant sleep-monitored measures. The findings add further support for the inclusion of sleep difficulties in the definition of the Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder.
TL;DR: Data from this preliminary investigation indicate the need for further work in the area, and with related populations, such as nonprofessionals who attempt cardiopulmonary resuscitation.
Abstract: Although anecdotes suggest that emergency medical technicians often themselves have to cope with severe trauma as a result of their work, almost all empirical work has been concerned with the aftermath of disaster. Fourteen volunteer ambulance attendants were asked about resuscitation attempts in which they had been involved. It was found that many of these evidenced a persistent psychological aftermath. Some of these individuals experienced vivid, involuntary, and uncontrollable thoughts, feelings, and/or mental images concerning their attempt. Perceived control and coping responses were examined, and found to be related to the impact of the resuscitation attempt upon the ambulance personnel. Data from this preliminary investigation indicate the need for further work in the area, and with related populations, such as nonprofessionals who attempt cardiopulmonary resuscitation.
TL;DR: In this article, a community sample of 2700 adults reported that in the previous 6 months they themselves or someone important to them were the victim of a crime (mugged or personally assaulted; burglarized, robbed, or swindled; or sexually assaulted).
Abstract: In a community sample of 2700 adults, 14.6% reported that in the previous 6 months they themselves or someone important to them were the victim of a crime (mugged or personally assaulted; burglarized, robbed, or swindled; or sexually assaulted). Men and women reported roughly equal rates of victimization; Hispanics reported fewer victimizations than non-Hispanic whites. History of criminal victimization during the previous 6 months and certain crime characteristics were used to predict concurrent depression (assessed by the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale) and suicidality (self-report of suicide ideation or attempt). Being a crime victim was associated with increased suicidality and depression. Increased risk of suicidality following criminal victimization occurred irrespective of race, gender, education, and current mental disorder. Those who were mugged, sexually assaulted, or experienced multiple victimization were at greatest risk for depression. Those who were mugged were at greatest risk of suicidality.
TL;DR: This article investigated the impact of a parent's internment on the children of those who were incarcerated and found that children whose parents had been interned were less secure about their rights in this country, having a greater preference for affiliation with other Japanese Americans and more strongly favoring monetary redress for those who are interned.
Abstract: The present study investigates the cross-generational impact of the World War II Japanese American internment upon the children of those who were incarcerated. Survey data were collected from a national sample of 593 third-generation (Sansei) Japanese Americans to assess the impact of a parent's internment upon the Sansei's: (a) patterns of communication, interest, and knowledge about the internment; and (b) attitudes towards ethnic affiliation, sense of security in the United States, and monetary redress. Results indicated that strikingly little communication has occurred between the Sansei and their parents regarding the internment. In addition, although Sansei whose parents had been interned did not differ from Sansei with noninterned parents in terms of outmarriage or level of knowledge about the internment, they did report being less secure about their rights in this country, having a greater preference for affiliation with other Japanese Americans and more strongly favoring monetary redress for those who were interned. The implications of these findings are discussed with reference to the existing literature on trauma and victimization.
TL;DR: In this article, the coping processes of childhood trauma of survivors who were children during World War II over the lifecycle in a nonclinical group were discussed. But the main issues referred to: (1) responses to war memories immediately after the war and 40 years later; (2) dealing with memories and feelings at present; (3) victims' feelings and attitudes toward the persecutor; (4) attitudes of survivors' children to the war experience of their parents; and (5) coping styles, including the survivors' responses at present.
Abstract: This essay deals with coping processes of childhood trauma of survivors who were children during World War II over the lifecycle in a nonclinical group. The main issues refer to: (1) responses to war memories immediately after the war and 40 years later; (2) dealing with memories and feelings at present; (3) victims' feelings and attitudes toward the persecutor; (4) attitudes of survivors' children to the war experience of their parents; and (5) coping styles immediately and 40 years after the war, including the survivors' responses at present. Using a semistructural interview and a qualitative content analysis of interviews, it is suggested that for most persons the reactivation of memories and the need to document their experiences enhances, in a limited scope, the recognition of their loss and brings some relief; it also discloses new ways for these adults to comprehend their traumatic past.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present findings of a common MMPI profile configuration for a small forensic sample (n=16) of persons traumatized by life-threatening civilian events or as a consequence of combat in the Vietnam War.
Abstract: This paper presents findings of a common MMPI profile configuration for a small forensic sample (n=16) of persons traumatized by life-threatening civilian events or as a consequence of combat in the Vietnam War. All subjects were involved in lawsuits in which the issue of compensation, medical benefits, or criminal disposition and sentencing were important concerns. A review of the existing empirical studies using this full MMPI scale as well as the MMPI post-traumatic subscale are discussed. In comparing the civilian and veteran samples on the MMPI clinical, validity, and subscales a number of statistically significant differences were found by analyses of variance and mean comparison tests of the data. While the profile configuration of both groups were similar (elevations onF, 8 and 2 scales), the Vietnam Veteran sample had significantly higher elevations. It was concluded that identifying an MMPI trauma profile and its variations may aid in the diagnosis and assessment of post-traumatic stress disorder.
TL;DR: In this article, the first 180 graduates of an inpatient Post Traumatic Stress Treatment program were asked to answer open-ended questions regarding in what ways the program helped most and least.
Abstract: Symptom checklists and a follow-up questionnaire were mailed to the first 180 graduates of an inpatient Post Traumatic Stress Treatment program. Eighty-six of the 180 responded to the survey. Their responses were compared to measures obtained on them while they were inpatients at the treatment program. Significant differences were found on one symptom checklist, while positive trends toward symptom reduction were noted on another. Demographic characteristics of the respondents were discussed, as were responses to open-ended questions regarding in what ways the program helped most and least. Changes in a positive direction were noted in the area of self-esteem, interpersonal relationships, and symptoms of numbing and arousal. PTSD-related intrusive symptoms had the least clear-cut improvement. Implications of these findings for inpatient treatment and aftercare are reviewed, with suggestions for future applied research.
TL;DR: This article found that the relationship between stressors and outcome can be defined by a common regression line for Blacks and Whites, and that the high symptom levels observed for Blacks in the sample were accounted for by higher levels of stressors during their war experience.
Abstract: A number of authors have written poignantly about the Black experience in the Vietnam war; however, very little research has addressed this topic. The present report studied race differences in preservice, stressor, and outcome variables in a community sample of 181 war veterans. Blacks reported higher levels of stressors and outcome, particularly for PTSD-related symptoms. The results suggested that the relationship between stressors and outcome can be defined by a common regression line for Blacks and Whites, and that the high symptom levels observed for Blacks in the sample were accounted for by higher levels of stressors during their war experience. The cognitive coping mode of avoidance did not conform to this pattern and showed higher levels for Blacks even controlling for other factors. Potential cultural origins of this difference were noted.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors used the Impact of Event Scale (IES) to assess individuals' psychological disturbance caused by exposure to a toxic substance from a hazardous waste site, and found that participants malingered psychological disturbance at a level comparable to the average outpatient on the IES.
Abstract: Untrained volunteers instructed to fake psychopathology in a manner plausible for purposes of personal injury malingering did so at a level comparable to the average outpatient on the Impact of Event Scale (IES). Although not questioning the general research and clinical utility of the instrument, the author cautions IES users to employ the instrument circumspectly in contexts where deception is an issue, such as in litigation. For purposes of this study, subjects malingered psychological disturbance caused by exposure to a toxic substance from a hazardous waste site.
TL;DR: This article reported on the reactions of a portion of the population of San Ysidro, California, to the McDonald's massacre in 1984 and found that one third of the women indicated they were seriously affected by the event and 12% reported having mild or severe levels of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) symptomatology at some point in time since the massacre.
Abstract: This paper reports on the reactions of a portion of the population of San Ysidro, California, to the McDonald's massacre in 1984 Recently immigrant, poor, Mexican American women, 35–50 years of age, who were not directly involved in the accident were surveyed to determine their emotional reactions approximately 6 months following the massacre Approximately one third of the women indicated they were seriously affected by the event Some 12% reported had mild or severe levels of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) symptomatology at some point in time since the massacre and some 6% still felt symptoms 6 to 9 months after the event The women most affected were those having relatives or friends involved in the massacre and those with general social vulnerability (eg, the widowed, separated, or divorced, unemployed and those with less income and fair to poor health) These women reported relatively little impact on their children Onset and chronicity of PTSD and health care utilization patterns were also explored Results of more intensive, open ended interviews with the women most affected by the event are summarized
TL;DR: In this article, three hundred and thirty-nine Vietnam combat veterans with the diagnosis of Post-traumatic stress disorder were administered the Vietnam Related Experiences Questionnaire, which was constructed to highlight four combat related conflicts postulated to represent the salient symptom clusters within PTSD: fear-anxiety, mistrust, survival guilt and guilt secondary to aggression.
Abstract: Three hundred and thirty-nine Vietnam combat veterans with the diagnosis of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder were administered the Vietnam Related Experiences Questionnaire. The items on this questionnaire were constructed to highlight four combat related conflicts postulated to represent the salient symptom clusters within PTSD: fear-anxiety, mistrust, survival guilt, and guilt secondary to aggression. Exploratory factor analysis followed by a confirmatory factor analytic procedure using maximum likelihood estimate demonstrated a five-factor solution: vulnerability, guilt, dreams of death/destruction, depression, and rebelliousness. The factor loadings of the variables and the factor correlations are discussed. Diagnostic features of the questionnaire are highlighted.
TL;DR: PTSD patients do not show the relatively low testosterone levels seen in major depressive disorder patients, but instead align more closely with the schizophrenic patients with regard to the pituitary-gonadal system, and there is an indication that chronic basal testosterone levels in PTSD patients may be elevated in comparison with normal subjects.
Abstract: In a longitudinal clinical psychoendocrine study, serum testosterone levels (ng/dl) were measured at 2-week intervals during the course of hospitalization in 34 male psychiatric inpatients in four diagnostic groups, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), major depressive disorder (endogenous type) (MDD-E), paranoid schizophrenia (PS), and bipolar I disorder- manic (BP), as well as in a group of normal male control subjects (CONT). A one-way analysis of variance revealed that the mean (± SE) testosterone levels were significantly higher (p<0.0002) in the PTSD (578±59), PS (571±49), and CONT (494±24) groups than in the MDD-E (331±47) and BP (351±31) groups. The same group differences were significant in the first sample (p<0.02), while in the last sample the values were significantly higher (p<0.0004) in the PTSD (623±66) and PS (566±72) groups than in the CONT (482±26), BP (353±61), and MDD-E (291±52) groups. These preliminary findings, then, indicate that in spite of considerable depressive symptomatology, PTSD patients do not show the relatively low testosterone levels seen in major depressive disorder patients, but instead align more closely with the schizophrenic patients with regard to the pituitary-gonadal system. There is also an indication that chronic basal testosterone levels in PTSD patients may be elevated in comparison with normal subjects. The possible link suggested by the psychoendocrine literature between testosterone levels and trait factors, particularly paranoid style, in these patient groups is considered, as is the potential application of these findings for multidimensional approaches to the development of improved biologic criteria for psychiatric diagnosis.
TL;DR: In this paper, the idea of parallel process from the therapeutic situation to crisis circumstances where similar processes can occur was extended to the debriefing of counselors working with the victims of a crisis.
Abstract: This article extends the idea of parallel process from the therapeutic situation to crisis circumstances where similar processes can occur. Parallel processes have a particular relevance in a crisis since critical incidents tend to raise the emotional climate of the counseling situation. The processes that occur with a group of victims in the aftermath of a crisis can be reenacted between counsellors working with the victims and this has implications for clinical work. As example of such a situation is discussed as are the ramifications for the debriefing of counsellors.
TL;DR: The Trauma Constellation Identification Scale (TCIS) as discussed by the authors is a self-report instrument designed to assess maladaptive cognitive schemata and negative affects associated with a stressful or traumatic life event.
Abstract: This investigation reports the development of a self-report instrument designed to assess maladaptive cognitive schemata and negative affects associated with a stressful or traumatic life event. Participants included undergraduate university students (N=228) who completed a questionnaire packet including the Approach-Avoidance Scale (AAS), the Trauma Constellation Identification Scale (TCIS), the Impact of Event Scale (IES), and the SCL-90-R. The data were analyzed to determine the psychometric properties of the TCIS. The TCIS has high internal consistency reliability (Cronbach's alpha = 0.94), and its 15 subscales load on two higher-order factors. TCIS scores were significantly related to intrusions, denial, avoidance coping, and all SCL-90-R psychological outcome variables. There was also evidence for the subscales to have differential relationships with coping and outcome variables as well as type of stressor. The TCIS may be utilized for research or in a clinical setting to document an individual's affective and cognitive response profile.
TL;DR: In this paper, a detailed description of debriefing process evolved by two counselling psychologists who work with victims of armed hold-ups is given. The authors give details of their procedures and interventions, their reasons for using them, as well as considering broader issues of working within an organizational context.
Abstract: The article gives a detailed description of the debriefing process evolved by two counselling psychologists who work with victims of armed hold-ups. The process is seen in the context of literature relating to post-trauma reactions and the type of interventions that are effective. The authors give details of their procedures and interventions, their reasons for using them, as well as considering broader issues of working within an organizational context.
TL;DR: The DST, cortisol suppression index, and inhibition of cortisol production index were useful to support the clinical diagnosis of major affective disorders in post-traumatic stress disorder patients, in an exclusively clinical setting.
Abstract: A study of 109 chronic, post-traumatic stress disorder patients found 65 suffered current major affective disorders. Of these 65, 84.8% had major depression and 15.2% had bipolar disorder. Nonsuppression of the DST occurred only in those cases with concurrent major affective disorder, the incidence of nonsuppression was 32.3%. Treatment effectively attained clinical improvement and conversion of nonsuppressor to suppressor state in these cases. The DST, cortisol suppression index, and inhibition of cortisol production index were useful to support the clinical diagnosis of major affective disorders in post-traumatic stress disorder patients, in an exclusively clinical setting.