Showing papers in "Journals of Gerontology Series B-psychological Sciences and Social Sciences in 2010"

Emotional Aging: Recent Findings and Future Trends

Abstract: Contrasting cognitive and physical decline, research in emotional aging suggests that most older adults enjoy high levels of affective well-being and emotional stability into their 70s and 80s. We investigate the contributions of age-related changes in emotional motivation and competence to positive affect trajectories. We give an overview on the recent literature on emotional processing and emotional regulation, combining evidence from correlational and experimental, as well as behavioral and neuroscience studies. In particular, we focus on emotion-cognition interactions, including the positivity effect. Looking forward, we argue that efforts to link levels of emotional functioning with long-term outcomes, combining space- and time-sensitive measures of brain function, and developing interventions to improve life quality for older adults may further refine life-span theories and open promising avenues of empirical investigation.

Cultural Values and Caregiving: The Updated Sociocultural Stress and Coping Model

Abstract: This review revises the sociocultural stress and coping model for culturally diverse family caregivers proposed in 1997 by Aranda and Knight. Available research on the influence of cultural values on the stress and coping process among family caregivers supports a common core model that is consistent across ethnic groups and that links care recipients' behavior problems and functional impairments to caregivers' burden appraisals and health outcomes. Familism as a cultural value appears to be multidimensional in its effects, with obligation values often being more influential than family solidarity. The effects of cultural values and other ethnic differences in stress and coping appear to involve social support and coping styles rather than burden appraisals. Implications of the revised model for research and practice are discussed.

Human Neuroscience and the Aging Mind: A New Look at Old Problems

Abstract: In this article, marking the 65th anniversary of the Journal of Gerontology, we offer a broad-brush overview of the new synthesis between neuroscientific and psychological approaches to cognitive aging. We provide a selective review of brain imaging studies and their relevance to mechanisms of cognitive aging first identified primarily from behavioral measurements. We also examine some new key discoveries, including evidence favoring plasticity and compensation that have emerged specifically from using cognitive neuroscience methods to study healthy aging. We then summarize several recent neurocognitive theories of aging, including our own model-the Scaffolding Theory of Aging and Cognition. We close by discussing some newly emerging trends and future research trajectories for investigating the aging mind and brain.

Volunteering in Later Life: Research Frontiers

Abstract: Objectives This review summarizes the current knowledge about volunteering in later life and suggests 5 research questions at the forefront of knowledge development. Results Rates of volunteering do not decline significantly until the middle of the 7th decade, and older volunteers commit more hours than younger volunteers. Older adults with more human and social capital tend to volunteer, and there is good evidence of a reciprocal relationship between volunteering and well-being. Program and policy developments in the field are outstripping production of knowledge to support evidence-based practices. Discussion Research on the dynamics of volunteering over the life course as well as the patterns of activities that co-occur with volunteering is needed to guide program development. Research methods and findings from transdisciplinary work on the mechanisms through which psychosocial conditions affect health must be extended to the study of the effects of volunteering on older adults. Finally, we need to engage in more applied social science aimed at improving volunteer management, especially recruitment and retention of older volunteers.

The Life Course and the Stress Process: Some Conceptual Comparisons

Abstract: This paper compares the meanings and applications of concepts relevant to both the life course and the stress process frameworks. Some of these concepts bear the same labels but serve quite different scholarly agendas. Other concepts have different labels but have closely related applications. The purpose of this kind of comparative analysis is to help both fields clarify the conceptual tools needed to advance their scholarly goals.

Still Happy After All These Years: Research Frontiers on Subjective Well-being in Later Life

Abstract: Objectives. Understanding the factors that promote quality of life in old age has been a staple of social gerontology since its inception and remains a significant theme in aging research. The purpose of this article was to review the state of the science with regard to subjective well-being (SWB) in later life and to identify promising directions for future research. Methods. This article is based on a review of literature on SWB in aging, sociological, and psychological journals. Although the materials reviewed date back to the early 1960s, the emphasis is on publications in the past decade. Results. Research to date paints an effective portrait of the epidemiology of SWB in late life and the factors associated with it. Although the research base is large, causal inferences about the determinants of SWB remain problematic. Two recent contributions to the research base are highlighted as emerging issues: studies of secular trends in SWB and crossnational studies.

Successful Aging in the United States: Prevalence Estimates From a National Sample of Older Adults

Abstract: Objectives. To estimate the prevalence of successful aging in the United States, with the broad aim of contributing to the dialogue on Rowe and Kahn’s concept of successful aging. Methods. Using data from the Health and Retirement Study, the prevalence of successful aging was calculated for adults aged 65 years and older at four time points: 1998, 2000, 2002, and 2004. Successful aging was operationalized in accordance with Rowe and Kahn’s definition, which encompasses disease and disability, cognitive and physical function ing, social connections, and productive activities. Results. no greater than 11.9% of older adults were aging “successfully” in any year. The adjusted odds of successful aging were generally lower for those of advanced age, male gender, and lower socioeconomic status. Between 1998 and 2004, the odds of successful aging declined by 25%, after accounting for demographic changes in the older population. Discussion. Few older adults meet the criteria put forth in Rowe and Kahn’s definition of successful aging, suggest ing the need for modification if the concept is to be used for broad public health purposes. Disparities in successful aging were evident for socially defined subgroups, highlighting the importance of structural factors in enabling successful aging.

Is It Better to Give or to Receive? Social Support and the Well-being of Older Adults

Abstract: Objectives. This study examines the separate effects of several dimensions of giving and receiving social support on the well-being of older adults, with hypotheses guided by identity theory. Methods. Data derive from the Social Networks in Adult Life survey, a national probability sample of older adults ( N = 689). Ordinary least squares regression was used to examine the impact of total support, size of support network, number of types of support, and types of alter support relationships — both given and received — on well-being. Results. Providing support to others is benefi cial to older adults ’ well-being, as illustrated in the relatively strong, positive associations of total support given, the number of types of support given, and support given to friends and children on well-being. Receiving support was less important to well-being except when received from a spouse or sibling. Conclusion. Evidence from this analysis provides support for hypotheses predicted by identity theory, highlights the importance of examining giving and receiving support net of the other, and suggests that it is often better for the wellbeing of older adults to give than to receive.

Frontiers of Research on Work and Retirement

Abstract: The shifting boundary between work and retirement and the always-emergent features of retirement practice create a wide opportunity for scholarship and research. After an overview of the scope of retirement research, this article articulates 4 areas that deserve special attention in the present historical circumstance: studies of the form and timing of retirement exits, the labor market for older workers, the quality of pensions, and the experience of retired life. The field should be wary of prescribing regimes of behavior for late careers and retirement that many people are unsuited to fulfill.

Awareness of Age-Related Change: Examination of a (Mostly) Unexplored Concept

Abstract: This theoretical article discusses the emerging concept of awareness of age-related change (AARC). We propose that a focus on AARC extends the research traditions on subjective age experiences and age identity and that examination of this concept can serve a stimulating role in social gerontology. After defining and contrasting AARC against similar concepts, several reasons for the relevance of this mostly unexplored construct are provided. The sample domains of health and physical functioning, cognitive functioning, and interpersonal relations are used to illustrate the relevance of AARC. Based on this review, we then provide a heuristic framework that describes antecedents, processes, and outcomes related to AARC. Overall, we argue that research on AARC should become an integral part of social gerontological research.

A Two-Factor Model of Successful Aging

Abstract: Objectives To propose and test a conceptual two-factor model of successful aging that includes objective and subjective components. Methods Data were derived from 5,688 persons aged 50-74 years living in New Jersey who participated in the ORANJ BOWL panel. Participants were recruited using random digit dial procedures and interviewed by telephone. A measurement model was developed and tested using data from two independent samples (each n = 1,000); a structural model examining the effects of age and gender was tested using data from another 3,688 people. Results Confirmatory factor analyses provided support for a multidimensional model incorporating objective criteria and subjective perceptions. Age and gender were associated with objective but not subjective success. Discussion Results add rigor to the measurement of a construct that has intrigued philosophers and scientists for hundreds of years, providing the empirical foundation on which to build research about successful aging.

Impact of PRISMA, a Coordination-Type Integrated Service Delivery System for Frail Older People in Quebec (Canada): A Quasi-experimental Study

Abstract: Objectives . To evaluate the impact of a coordination-type integrated service delivery (ISD) model on health, satisfaction, empowerment, and services utilization of frail older people. Methods . Program of Research to Integrate Services for the Maintenance of Autonomy (PRISMA) is a populationbased, quasi-experimental study with three experimental and three comparison areas. From a random selection of people 75 years or older, 1,501 persons identifi ed at risk of functional decline were recruited (728 experimental and 773 comparison). Participants were measured over 4 years for disabilities (Functional Autonomy Measurement System), unmet needs, satisfaction with services, and empowerment. Information on utilization of health and social services was collected by bimonthly telephone questionnaires. Results . Over the last 2 years (when the implementation rate was over 70%), there were 62 fewer cases of functional decline per 1,000 individuals in the experimental group. In the fourth year of the study, the annual incidence of functional decline was lower by 137 cases per 1,000 in the experimental group, whereas the prevalence of unmet needs in the comparison region was nearly double the prevalence observed in the experimental region. Satisfaction and empowerment were signifi cantly higher in the experimental group. For health services utilization, a lower number of visits to emergency rooms and hospitalizations than expected was observed in the experimental cohort. Conclusion . The PRISMA model improves the effi cacy of the health care system for frail older people.

Frontiers in the Use of Biomarkers of Health in Research on Stress and Aging

Abstract: Assessment of biomarkers that reflect objective indicators of physiological processes has become increasingly popular in psychological research on stress and aging. The current article reviews biomarkers of the neuroendocrine and immune systems, including issues related to measurement and normative age-related changes. We also discuss how exposure to stressors can provoke changes in these biomarkers and propose that stressful experiences may accelerate age-related declines in these systems. We recommend that future research examining physical health and aging incorporate dynamic and multivariate methods for assessing links between stressors and biomarkers.

Dynamics and Heterogeneity in the Process of Human Frailty and Aging: Evidence From the U.S. Older Adult Population

Abstract: Objectives. This study investigated the dynamics and heterogeneity of the frailty index (FI) conceived as a systemic indicator of biological aging in the community-dwelling older adult population in the united states. Methods. We used panel data on multiple birth cohorts from the health and Retirement survey 1993-2006 and growth curve models to estimate age trajectories of the FI and their differences by sex, race, and socioeconomic status (ses) within cohorts. Results. The FI for cohorts born before 1942 exhibit quadratic increases with age and accelerated increases in the ac - cumulation of health deficits. More recent cohorts exhibit higher average levels of and rates of increment in the FI than their predecessors do at the same ages. Females, non-Whites, and individuals with low education and income exhibit greater degrees of physiological deregulation than their male, White, and high-ses counterparts at any age. Patterns of sex, race, and ses differentials in rates of aging vary across cohorts. Discussion. Adjusting for social behavioral factors, the analysis provides evidence for physiological differences in the aging process among recent cohorts of older adults, points to the need for biological explanations of female excess in general system damage, and reveals the insufficiency of any single mechanism for depicting the racial and ses differ-

Social networks and well-being: a comparison of older people in Mediterranean and non-Mediterranean countries.

Abstract: Objectives. This study examined whether the social networks of older persons in Mediterranean and non-Mediterranean countries were appreciably different and whether they functioned in similar ways in relation to well-being outcomes. Methods. The sample included family household respondents aged 60 years and older from the first wave of the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe in 5 Mediterranean (n = 3,583) and 7 non-Mediterranean (n = 5,471) countries. Region was regressed separately by gender on variables from 4 network domains: structure and interaction, exchange, engagement and relationship quality, and controlling for background and health characteristics. In addition, 2 well-being outcomes—depressive symptoms and perceived income inadequacy—were regressed on the study variables, including regional social network interaction terms. Results. The results revealed differences across the 2 regional settings in each of the realms of social network, above and beyond the differences that exist in background characteristics and health status. The findings also showed that the social network variables had different effects on the well-being outcomes in the respective settings. Discussion. The findings underscore that the social network phenomenon is contextually bound. The social networks of older people should be seen within their unique regional milieu and in relation to the values and social norms that prevail in different sets of societies.

Toward a Psychological Science of Advanced Technology Design for Older Adults

Abstract: TECHNOLOGY represents advances in knowledge that change the way humans perform tasks. Ideally, technology will make the task easier, more efficient, safer, or perhaps more pleasurable. Unfortunately, new technologies can sometimes make a task more difficult, slower, dangerous, or perhaps more frustrating. Older adults interact with a variety of technologies in the course of their daily activities. In a diary study wherein older adults logged all of their interactions with technology for a 10 day period, O’Brien (2009) found that the average number of technology interactions reported by individuals aged 65–75 years was 190 for individuals preclassified as “low-technology users” (i.e., who self-reported using a low number of common technologies). The average number of technology interactions was 301 for a preclassified group of older individuals who were “high-technology users.” Participants were asked to focus on technology interactions that involved electronics in some way; their reports included radios, microwave ovens, computers, exercise equipment, home security, answering machines, and more. They also reported frustrations, failures, and coping strategies—this is where psychological science can have an impact. Psychology has much to offer to the design of technology—from understanding what people need, to identifying their preferences for design characteristics, and to defining their capabilities and limitations that will influence technology interactions. Our goal in this article is to identify how research in the field of psychology and aging has advanced understanding of technology interactions. We describe technology use by older adults to elucidate myths and realities. We discuss recent trends in the field and the current “state-of-the-science” regarding aging and technology interactions. Finally, we introduce the future—technologies on the horizon that are very different from desk-top computers. These developments must be informed by psychological science if they are going to improve the lives of older adults. Throughout we highlight future research needs.

Does Cognitive Training Improve Internal Locus of Control Among Older Adults

Abstract: Objectives. We evaluated the effect of cognitive training among 1,534 participants in the Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly (ACTIVE) randomized controlled trial (RCT) on 5-year improvements in 3 cognitivespecific measures of locus of control—internal, chance, and powerful others. Methods. ACTIVE was a multisite RCT (age ≥ 65), with 4 groups (memory, reasoning, speed of processing, and nocontact control). Complete 5-year follow-up data were available for 1,534 (55%) of the 2,802 participants. A propensity score model was used to adjust for potential attrition bias. Clinically important improvements (and decrements) in the cognitive-specific locus of control scale scores were defined as greater than or equal to 0.5 SD (medium) and greater than or equal to 1.0 SD (large). Multinomial logistic regression was used to simultaneously contrast those who improved and those who declined with those whose locus of control scale score was unchanged. Results. Statistically significant effects reflecting medium-sized ( ≥0.5 SD) improvements in internal locus of control between baseline and the 5-year follow-up were found for the reasoning and speed of processing intervention groups who were 76% (p < .01) and 68% (p < .05) more likely, respectively, to improve than the no-contact control group. No improvement effects were found on the chance or powerful others locus of control measures or for the memory intervention group. Conclusion. Cognitive training that targets reasoning and speed of processing can improve the cognitive-specific sense of personal control over one’s life in older adults.

Adult Children’s Problems and Successes: Implications for Intergenerational Ambivalence

Abstract: Ambivalence theory suggests that parents experience ambivalence due to conflicting desires to help children in need and to launch children into adulthood. This study examined parents' reports of their adult children's problems and successes and implications for ambivalence. Participants aged 40-60 years (302 men and 331 women from different families) reported on up to 3 of their adult children (N = 1,251). Men and women differentiated among children in ratings of problems, successes, and ambivalence. Men and not women reported greater ambivalence regarding children with more physical-emotional problems and less career success. Men and women reported greater ambivalence regarding children with less relationship success. Consistent with ambivalence theory, individuals feel more ambivalent regarding problematic and less successful children but men's ambivalence appears to be more sensitive to their children's problems and successes than women's ambivalence.

Are Older Adults Less or More Physiologically Reactive? A Meta-Analysis of Age-Related Differences in Cardiovascular Reactivity to Laboratory Tasks

Abstract: In this meta-analytic review of 31 laboratory studies, we examined if relatively older adults showed lower or higher cardiovascular reactivity compared with relatively younger adults. Results revealed that age was associated with lower heart rate reactivity but higher systolic blood pressure (SBP) reactivity during emotionally evocative tasks. Consistent with the predictions of dynamic integration theory, the result for SBP was moderated by the degree of task activation. These data are discussed in light of existing self-regulatory models and important future research directions.

Early-Stage Memory Loss Support Groups: Outcomes from a Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial

Abstract: Objectives. This article describes results of a randomized controlled trial comparing a time-limited early-stage memory loss (ESML) support group program conducted by a local Alzheimer’s Association chapter to a wait-list (WL) control condition. Methods. One hundred and forty-two dyads were randomized in blocks to ESML (n = 96) or WL (n = 46). Mean age of participants was 74.9 years, and mean Mini-Mental State Examination was 23.4. The primary outcome was participant’s quality of life; secondary outcomes included mood, family communication, and perceived stress. Results. On the intent-to-treat (ITT) pre–post analysis, significant differences were seen in participant quality of life (p < .001), depression (p < .01), and family communication (p < .05). Within the care partner groups, there was no significant difference between ESML and WL in the ITT analysis. A post hoc exploratory examination of changes that were associated with improved quality of life in ESML participants revealed significant reductions of depressive symptoms and behavior problems (p < .05), improved family communication (p < .05), self-efficacy ( p < .01), Medical Outcomes Study short form (SF-36) role—emotional (p < .05), SF-36 social functioning (p < .05), and SF-36 mental health components (p < .01) in improvers.

The Classic Measure of Disability in Activities of Daily Living Is Biased by Age but an Expanded IADL/ADL Measure Is Not

Abstract: Objectives. To evaluate, by age, the performance of 2 disability measures based on needing help: one using 5 classic activities of daily living (ADL) and another using an expanded set of 14 activities including instrumental activities of daily living (IADL), walking, getting outside, and ADL (IADL/ADL ). Methods. Guttman and item response theory (IRT) scaling methods are used with a large ( N = 25,470) nationally representative household survey of individuals aged 18 years and older. Results. Guttman scalability of the ADL items increases steadily with age, reaching a high level at ages 75 years and older. That is reflected in an IRT model by age-related differential item functioning (DIF) resulting in age-biased measure ment of ADL. Guttman scalability of the IADL/ADL items also increases with age but is lower than the ADL. Although age-related DIF also occurs with IADL/ADL items, DIF is lower in magnitude and balances out without causing age bias. Discussion. An IADL/ADL scale measuring need for help is hierarchical, unidimensional, and unbiased by age. It has greater content validity for measuring need for help in the community and shows greater sensitivity by age than the classic ADL measure. As demand for community services is increasing among adults of all ages, an expanded IADL/ADL measure is more useful than ADL.

Religion and Mental Health Among Older Adults: Do the Effects of Religious Involvement Vary by Gender?

Abstract: Objectives. Few studies explore how the relationship between religious involvement and mental health varies by gender among the aging population. This article outlines a series of arguments concerning the effects of gender in moderating the effect of religious involvement on mental health and examines them empirically. Methods. Using two waves (2001 and 2004) of the Religion, Aging, and Health Survey, this study estimates the differential effect of gender in the religion ‐ mental health connection using multivariate analyses for a nationally representative sample of U.S. adults aged 66 ‐ 95 years. Results. Results suggest that (a) men obtain more mental health benefi ts from religious involvement than women, (b) women with higher levels of organizational religious involvement have similar levels of mental health as those with moderate and lower levels of organizational religious involvement, (c) men with very high levels of organizational religious involvement tend to have much higher levels of mental health than all other men. Discussion. The relationship between organizational religious involvement and mental health is found to be mostly a nonlinear one such that those with the highest levels of religiosity receive all the benefi ts. The fi ndings suggest a number of promising research directions on the religion ‐ mental health connection among older Americans.

Living in a Different World: Acculturative Stress Among Korean American Elders

Abstract: Using a sample of Korean American elders, this study examined internal mechanisms by which the level of acculturation influences mental health outcomes. We hypothesized that the impact of five domains of acculturation on mental distress (depressive symptoms and anxiety) would be mediated by individuals' subjectively appraised acculturative stress. The latter was indexed by measures of task-oriented and emotion-oriented stress. The results from structural equation modeling with 472 Korean American elders in Florida (M age = 69.9, SD = 7.04) provided support for the mediation model. Findings demonstrate that acculturation exerts an influence on mental health and that acculturative stress functions as a mediator in the linkage between the level of acculturation and mental distress. Findings suggest avenues for facilitating immigrant elders' positive adaptation and promoting their mental well-being.

Military Service and Men's Health Trajectories in Later Life

Abstract: PARTICIPATION in the military is an often overlooked early-adulthood experience that has the potential to shape a range of later-life health and health-related outcomes (Elder, 1986, 1987; London & Wilmoth, 2006) During the past 25 years, a growing body of research has demonstrated that the US military is a critical social institution that can reshape educational, occupational, income, marital/family, health, and other life course trajectories and outcomes (MacLean & Elder, 2007; Modell & Haggerty, 1991; Settersten, 2006) and that the potential of the military to transform lives varies across individual characteristics, the timing of military service in the life course, service experiences, and historical periods (Angrist, 1990; Angrist & Krueger, 1994; Teachman, 2004; Teachman & Call, 1996) The extant literature on military service and the life course has specifically and primarily addressed the negative impact of military service during World War II (WWII) on the health of men in the general population This literature indicates that men who entered the military late were more likely to experience health declines throughout life (Elder, Shanahan & Clipp, 1994); exposure to combat predicted physical decline and death during the 15-year post-war interval from 1945 to 1960 (Elder, Shanahan, & Clipp, 1997); overseas active duty, service in the Pacific arena, and combat exposure were related to an increased mortality risk through 2000 (Elder, Clipp, Brown, Martin & Friedman, 2009); and military service caused an increase in work-limiting disabilities for men between the ages of 40 and 60 years and raised the premature death rate between the ages of 45 and 72 years (Bedard & Deschenes, 2006) Using data from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS), London and Wilmoth (2006) report that male veterans have similar or higher mortality in later life than nonveterans, although military service offsets some of the mortality disadvantage experienced by Black men One recent study indicates that Vietnam veterans had more activity limitations and worse self-rated health than nonveterans, and that, as they aged, functioning and health deteriorated much more rapidly among veterans than among nonveterans (Dobkin & Shabani, 2009) There is also a substantial literature on the physical health of veterans that suggests that veterans are in poorer health and have more functional limitations and disabilities than nonveterans (Aldwin, Levenson, & Spiro, 1994; Beebe, 1975; Centers for Disease Control, 1998; Keehn, 1980; Schnurr, Spiro, & Paris, 2000) Although this literature provides important data on the health of veterans, it often does not directly examine differences between veterans and nonveterans, compare veterans with and without wartime service, or attempt to determine the extent to which service during particular wars has different effects on later-life health This is problematic given that a large percentage of the older male population in the United States served in the military, often during periods of war In 2000, almost 95 million men aged 65 years and older were veterans, which represents nearly 65% of men in this age group (Federal Interagency Forum on Aging-Related Statistics, 2005) Given that military service is a “hidden variable” in our understanding of aging (Elder & Clipp, 1988; Settersten, 2006; Spiro, Schnurr, & Aldwin, 1994), there is a need for additional research on the effects of veteran status on later-life outcomes In particular, health research is needed that includes cohorts who came of age during and after WWII, and makes direct comparisons between veterans and nonveterans, between veterans with and without wartime service, and between war veterans who served in different historical periods In this article, we address the following research questions: (a) Do veterans have different levels and trajectories of health in later life than nonveterans? (b) Among veterans, do those who served during wartime have poorer health outcomes in later life than those who did not serve during wartime? and (c) Among war service veterans, do later-life health trajectories vary across men who served during different wars? We use data from the HRS to estimate growth curve models that test for differences at the mean age of 662 years and differing trajectories in the number of health conditions, activities of daily living (ADL) limitations, and self-rated health among men who were born prior to 1955 and came of age from WW II through the Vietnam War We note that our analyses do not address the experiences of younger cohorts who served after 1973, when the military became an “All-Volunteer Force” and military service became a less normative part of early adulthood

Take-up of Medicare Part D: Results From the Health and Retirement Study

Abstract: Objectives: To estimate the impact of Medicare Part D on prescription drug coverage among elderly Medicare benefi ciaries and to analyze the predictors of program enrollment (“take-up”) among those with no prior drug coverage. Methods: Multivariate analyses of data from the 2002, 2004, and 2006 waves of the Health and Retirement Study. Results: Take-up of Part D among those without drug coverage in 2004 was high; about 50%–60% of this group had Part D coverage in 2006. Only 7% of senior citizens lacked drug coverage in 2006 compared with 24% in 2004. Demand for prescription drugs was the most important determinant of the decision to enroll in Part D among those with no prior coverage. Many of those who remained without coverage in 2006 reported that they do not use prescribed medicines, and the majority had relatively low out-of-pocket spending. Conclusion: For the most part, Medicare beneficiaries seem to have been able to make economically rational deci sions about Part D enrollment despite the complexity of the program.

Age Identity, Gender, and Perceptions of Decline: Does Feeling Older Lead to Pessimistic Dispositions About Cognitive Aging?

Abstract: Objectives. Drawing on past studies of age identity, this article examined whether feeling older was associated with more pessimistic views about cognitive aging. Methods. Using respondents aged 55 years and older in the Midlife Development in the United States study, we estimated a series of linear regression models to predict people's dispositions toward their cognitive aging. The main comparison is whether the effects of age identity on cognitive aging differ for men and women. Results. Beyond the effects of chronological age, older age identities were associated with more pessimistic dispositions about cognitive aging. This relationship, however, was found only among women. Discussion. Age identity shapes cognitive aging dispositions, though the gendered nature of this relationship remains somewhat unclear. The findings give further evidence about the far-reaching implications of age identity for successful aging and suggest that future work can explicate how subjective aging processes may differ by gender.

Productive Activities and Development of Frailty in Older Adults

Abstract: Objective. Our aim was to examine whether engagement in productive activities, including volunteering, paid work, and childcare, protects older adults against the development of geriatric frailty. Methods. Data from the first (1988) and second (1991) waves of the macArthur Study of Successful Aging, a prospec- tive cohort study of high-functioning older adults aged 70-79 years ( n = 1,072), was used to examine the hypothesis that engagement in productive activities is associated with lower levels of frailty 3 years later. Results. Engagement in productive activities at baseline was associated with a lower cumulative odds of frailty 3 years later in unadjusted models (odds ratio (OR) = 0.74, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.58-0.96) but not after adjusting for age, disability, and cognitive function (adjusted OR = 0.78, 95% CI = 0.60-1.01). Examination of productive activity domains showed that volunteering (but neither paid work nor childcare) was associated with a lower cumulative odds of frailty after adjusting for age, disability, and cognitive function. This relationship diminished and was no longer statisti - cally significant after adjusting for personal mastery and religious service attendance. Discussion. Though high-functioning older adults who participate in productive activities are less likely to become frail, after adjusting for age, disability, and cognitive function, only volunteering is associated with a lower cumulative odds of frailty.

Age Differences and Social Stratification in the Long-Term Trajectories of Leisure-Time Physical Activity

Abstract: Objectives. This study assessed how and why the social stratification of leisure-time physical activity changes as adults at different points in the life course, and from different birth cohorts, grow older. Methods. A series of multilevel models were estimated using longitudinal data from a national sample of more than 3,000 adults from the Americans’ Changing Lives study. Results. On average, rates of leisure-time physical activity increased within younger adults and decreased within middleaged and older adults, throughout the study period. Initial Black–White differences in activity converged over time, whereas initial men advantages over women widened, particularly among older adults. Gender-based differences did not remain after accounting for differences in health; however, significant age and race differences in the trajectories of physical activity persisted, even after accounting for the effects of health and social relationships on leisure-time physical activity. Discussion. American adults appear to be reducing their levels of physical activity relatively early in the life course and at increasingly steep rates among older age groups. The changing patterns of stratification in physical activity, as well as the associations between several time-varying predictors and physical activity, provide insight into the forces that may be responsible for these declines.

Changes in Mobility Among Older Adults with Psychometrically Defined Mild Cognitive Impairment

Abstract: Studies have found that adults with possible mild cognitive impairment (MCI) exhibit decrements in everyday functioning (e.g., Wadley, V. G., Crowe, M., Marsiske, M., Cook, S. E., Unverzagt, F. W., Rosenberg, A. L., et al. (2007). Changes in everyday function among individuals with psychometrically defined mild cognitive impairment. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 55, 1192-1198). However, it is not known whether driving mobility and life space mobility are reduced in such individuals. The current study examined 5-year trajectories of mobility change in older adults (N = 2,355) with psychometrically defined MCI from the Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly trial. Mixed effect models evaluated group differences for the following mobility outcomes: driving space, life space, driving frequency, and driving difficulty. Relative to cognitively normal participants, participants with possible MCI showed reduced baseline mobility for all outcomes as well as faster rates of decline for driving frequency and difficulty. These results suggest that mobility declines could be features of MCI, and changes in mobility may be particularly important for researchers and clinicians to monitor in this population.

The Increasing Use of Theory in Social Gerontology: 1990–2004

Abstract: Objectives. To determine how often theory is used in published research in social gerontology, compare theory use over a 10-year period (1990–1994 to 2000–2004), and identify the theories most frequently used in social gerontology research. Methods. Systematic review of articles published in eight leading journals from 2000 to 2004 (N = 1,046) and comparison with a review conducted 10 years earlier. Results. Theory was mentioned in 39% of articles published from 2000 to 2004, representing a 12% increase in the use of theory over 10 years. This increase was driven by theories outside the core sociology of aging theories identified by Bengtson, V. L., Burgess, E. O., and Parrott, T. M. (1997). Theory, explanation, and a third generation of theoretical development in social gerontology. Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 52B, S72–S88. The five most frequently used theories included the life course perspective, life-span developmental theories, role theory, exchange theory, and person–environment theory/ecological theories of aging. Commonly used models included stress process/stress and coping models, successful aging models, the Andersen behavioral model of health services use, models of control/ self-efficacy/mastery, and disablement process models. Discussion. Theory use in social gerontology increased between 1990 and 2004, with a shift toward theories that cross disciplines. However, the majority of research in social gerontology continues to be atheoretical. Models are widely used as a supplement to or substitute for theory. Many of these models are currently being debated and elaborated, and over time, they may emerge as important theoretical contributions to social gerontology.