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Showing papers in "Journals of Gerontology Series B-psychological Sciences and Social Sciences in 2011"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Cognitive assessment appropriate for diagnosis of dementia and CIND in large population surveys could be improved with more targeted information from informants and additional cognitive tests targeting other areas of brain function.
Abstract: Objectives. This study examines the similarity of cognitive assessments using 1 interview in a large population study, the Health and Retirement Study (HRS), and a subsample in which a detailed neuropsychiatric assessment has been performed (Aging, Demographics, and Memory Study [ADAMS]).

536 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Empirical findings do not support recent compression of morbidity when morbidity is defined as major disease and mobility functioning loss, and length of life with disease and Mobility functioning loss has increased between 1998 and 2008.
Abstract: Objective. This paper reviews trends in mortality and morbidity to evaluate whether there has been a compression of morbidity.

528 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: These results demonstrate for the first time the feasibility of engaging seniors in a large-scale deployment of in-home activity assessment technology and the successful collection of these activity metrics.
Abstract: Results. M ean age was 83.3 years, mean years of education was 15.5, and 73% of cohort were women. During a 4-week snapshot, participants left their home twice a day on average for a total of 208 min per day. Mean in-home walking speed was 61.0 cm/s. Participants spent 43% of days on the computer averaging 76 min per day. Discussion. These results demonstrate for the first time the feasibility of engaging seniors in a large-scale deployment of in-home activity assessment technology and the successful collection of these activity metrics. We plan to use this platform to determine if continuous unobtrusive monitoring may detect incident cognitive decline.

256 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The findings confirm the existence of independent domain-specific age stereotypes, providing evidence for a multifaceted and complex view of old age and aging.
Abstract: Results. Our findings confirm the existence of independent domain-specific age stereotypes, providing evidence for a multifaceted and complex view of old age and aging. “Old persons” were evaluated differently in the various life domains, and age thresholds for ascriptions of being old differed between domains. Furthermore, the positivity of domainspecific age stereotypes of a person predicted individual life satisfaction for the respective life domain. The strength of the relationship between age stereotypes and life satisfaction increased with participants’ age. Discussion. Our results indicate the existence of domain-specific age stereotypes that become internalized into older

198 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Most middle-aged adults provide more to grown offspring than to parents, consistent with their greater stake in their progeny, in accordance with contingency theory.
Abstract: Objectives. Middle-aged adults engage in support exchanges with generations above and below. This study investigated (a) how support to one generation is associated with support to the other and (b) factors accounting for whether parents or offspring receive more support in a family. Methods. Middle-aged adults aged 40–60 years (N = 633) completed telephone interviews regarding their relationships and support exchanges with each grown child and living parent. Results. Multilevel models revealed that most participants provided more support to the average grown child than to the average parent. Yet, a proportion of the sample reversed this pattern, providing more support to parents. Mediation models revealed that middle-aged adults provided greater support to offspring because they viewed offspring as more important than parents and offspring had greater everyday needs (e.g., being a student, not married). Parental disability accounted for greater support to parents. Discussion. Discussion integrates solidarity theory, developmental stake, and contingency theory. Most middle-aged adults provide more to grown offspring than to parents, consistent with their greater stake in their progeny. Middle-aged adults also respond to crises (i.e., parental disability) and everyday needs (i.e., offspring student status) in providing intergenerational support, in accordance with contingency theory.

180 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The present study demonstrates that it is likely that older workers are not viewed entirely negatively or entirely positively in the workplace; rather, the perceptions of Older workers are more are varied, and even positive in some cases.
Abstract: Objective. This article presents an updated meta-analysis of field and laboratory studies that examine the influence of age on a number of evaluative workplace outcomes (advancement, selection, general evaluations, interpersonal skills, and reliability). Method. A random effects meta-analytic procedure was used. Results. In line with the perspective that perceptions of older workers are multidimensional, the observed meta-analytic correlations indicate that age has medium-sized negative effects on majority of the outcomes investigated (radvancement = −.21, rselection = −.30, rgeneral evaluations = −.24, and rinterpersonal skills = −.23, and a medium-sized positive effect on perceptions of reliability (rreliability = .31). Additionally, evidence of moderation by study design for the selection outcome is presented, such that within-subjects designs elicit stronger effects of age than between-subjects designs. Discussion. The present study demonstrates that it is likely that older workers are not viewed entirely negatively or entirely positively in the workplace; rather, the perceptions of older workers are more are varied, and even positive in some cases.

171 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Regression analyses revealed significant positive associations between histories of greater social contacts and support and both executive function and episodic memory, whereas declines in social contacts were negatively associated with both outcomes.
Abstract: Objectives. To evaluate whether social contacts, support, and social strain/conflict are related to executive function and memory abilities in middle-age and older adults. Methods. Longitudinal data on social contacts, support, and strain/conflict were examined in relation to executive function and memory at ages 35–85 years using data from the national Midlife in the U.S. (MIDUS) study. Age-related differences in patterns of association were also examined. Results. Regression analyses, controlling for age, sex, race, education, chronic health conditions, and health behaviors, revealed significant positive associations between histories of greater social contacts and support and both executive function and episodic memory, whereas declines in social contacts were negatively associated with both outcomes. Greater average reported frequency of social exchanges characterized by strain or conflict was negatively associated with executive function but not episodic memory. Patterns were generally consistent across different age groups; where differences were seen, associations were stronger in younger age group. Discussion. Positive and negative aspects of social relationships are related to cognition throughout adulthood, consistent with the hypothesis that social factors have life-long influences on cognition. Positive and negative aspects of so cial engagement may thus be important factors to consider in relation to efforts to promote optimal cognitive development and cognitive aging.

170 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The observed cross-national variation in successful aging-which continues to exist if population composition is controlled for-highlights the importance of taking into consideration structural factors at the societal level and suggests a potential for policy interventions supporting individuals' opportunities for successful aging.
Abstract: Objectives. We estimate comparable prevalence estimates of “successful aging” for 14 European countries and Israel, adding a new cross-nationally comparative perspective to recently published findings for the United States. Methods. Measures for a variety of specific successful aging criteria were derived from baseline interviews of respondents aged 65+ who participated in the Survey of Health, Ageing, and Retirement in Europe (n = 21,493). A multivariate logistic model was run for our global successful aging measure. Results. Our analysis revealed substantial cross-country variation around a mean value of 8.5%: Although as many as 21.1% of older Danes meet our successful aging criteria, the respective proportion in Poland is only 1.6%. Age, gender, and socioeconomic status are shown to bear highly significant associations with individuals’ odds of successful aging. Discussion. The observed cross-national variation in successful aging—which continues to exist if population composition is controlled for—highlights the importance of taking into consideration structural factors at the societal level. It also suggests a potential for policy interventions supporting individuals’ opportunities for successful aging.

158 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The findings support expansion of the use of anchoring vignettes to properly account for reporting differences in self-reports of health and suggest caution in relying on self-reported health measures to quantify and explain health disparities by socioeconomic status and race/ethnicity/ ethnicity in the United States.
Abstract: Objectives. Measurement of health inequalities based on self-reports may be biased if individuals use response scales in systematically different ways. We use anchoring vignettes to test and adjust for reporting differences by education, race/ethnicity, and gender in self-reported health in 6 domains (pain, sleep, mobility, memory, shortness of breath, and depression). Method. Using data from the 2006 U.S. Health and Retirement Study (HRS) and the 2007 Disability Vignette Survey, we estimated generalized ordered probit models of the respondent’s rating of each vignette character’s health problem, allowing cut-points to vary by age, gender, education, and race/ethnicity. We then used one-step hierarchical ordered probit (HOPIT) models to jointly estimate the respondent’s cut-points from the vignettes and the severity of the respondent’s own health problems based on these vignette cut-points. Results. We found strong evidence of reporting differences by age, gender, education, and race/ethnicity, with the magnitude depending on the specific health domain. Overall, traditional models not accounting for reporting differences underestimated the magnitude of health inequalities by education and race/ethnicity. Discussion. These results suggest caution in relying on self-reported health measures to quantify and explain health disparities by socioeconomic status and race/ethnicity/ethnicity in the United States. The findings support expansion of the use of anchoring vignettes to properly account for reporting differences in self-reports of health.

144 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Gender differences in the extent to which older adults maintain a related, but distinct, form of social capital-bridging potential, which involves serving as a tie between two unconnected parties and thus boosts independence and control of everyday social life are documents.
Abstract: Objectives. Most studies of older adults’ social networks focus on their access to dense networks that yield access to social support. This paper documents gender differences in the extent to which older adults maintain a related, but distinct, form of social capital—bridging potential, which involves serving as a tie between two unconnected parties and thus boosts independence and control of everyday social life. Methods. I use egocentric social network data from a national sample of 3,005 older adults—collected in 2005–2006 by the National Social Life, Health, and Aging Project—to compare older men’s and women’s network bridging potential using multivariate regression analysis. Results. Older women are more likely than older men to have bridging potential in their networks—between both kin and non-kin contacts. These gender differences increase with age. Older women are also more likely to have network members who are not connected to or monopolized by their spouse or partner. Some, but not all, of these gender differences are due to the fact that older women have larger social networks and maintain more ties to people outside of the household.

139 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is demonstrated how participants storied resistance in different ways and the important implications this had for the way aging was understood and acted upon-by themselves and potentially by others.
Abstract: Objectives. In Western society, the narrative of decline dominates the aging process. We know very little about the complexities of how people resist this narrative. The purpose of this article is to understand how a group of mature natural bodybuilders resisted the narrative of decline. Methods. In-depth life story interviews were conducted with 13 natural bodybuilders aged between 50 and 73 years. Verbatim transcripts were produced and the data analyzed using a structural narrative analysis. A dialogical analysis was also utilized. Results. The participants’ experiences did not fit with stereotypical assumptions about decline and deterioration in older age. They all told counterstories to “natural” aging, yet what differed was how the participants’ counterstories resisted the narrative of decline and the level of resistance that they provided. Discussion. We advance knowledge in the fields of aging and narrative inquiry by revealing the multidimensionality of resistance. We demonstrated how participants storied resistance in different ways and the important implications this had for the way aging was understood and acted upon—by themselves and potentially by others. In addition to advancing theoretical knowledge, in this article, we also significantly contribute to understandings of the potential of narrative for changing human lives and behavior across the life course in more positive and nuanced ways.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The results are promising in that educational disparities in memory and reasoning were reduced, suggesting possible interventions to protect against cognitive declines.
Abstract: This study examined the joint protective contribution of psychosocial and behavioral factors to cognitive functioning and 10-year change, beyond the influence of sociodemographic factors, physical risk factors, health status, and engagement in cognitive activities. Participants were from the National Study of Midlife in the United States (MIDUS), ages 32-84 at Time 2, and a subsample, the Boston Longitudinal Study (BOLOS), ages 34-84 at Time 2. We computed a composite protective measure including control beliefs, quality of social support, and physical exercise variables at two occasions, 9-10 years apart. Cognition was assessed at Time 2 in MIDUS and at both occasions in BOLOS. Multiple regressions were used for analysis. In MIDUS, the more of the protective factors, the better the cognitive performance, and the protective composite moderated education differences in memory. In BOLOS, the Time 1 composite predicted change in reasoning abilities, with a greater protective effect for those with lower education. A combination of modifiable psychosocial and behavioral factors has both concurrent and long-term protective effects on cognition in adulthood. The results are promising in that educational disparities in memory and reasoning were reduced, suggesting possible interventions to protect against cognitive declines.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: By identifying multiple pathways through which visual impairment diminishes quality of life among older adults, this study highlights the importance of multipronged intervention efforts.
Abstract: Objectives. We examine 4 potential explanations for the lower quality of life reported by older adults with greater visual impairment. Methods. Using 2 waves of data from a nationally representative sample of older persons (a subsample of the Americans’ Changing Lives Study, 1986 and 1989), we run residual change regression analysis to assess the extent to which the effect of visual impairment on quality of life, indicated by depressive symptoms and life satisfaction, is explained by changes in each of the following: (1) activity limitations; (2) socioeconomic resources, measured as income and financial strain; (3) social resources, indicated by social integration and perceived support; and (4) psychological resources, measured by self-efficacy. Results. Higher levels of visual impairment are associated with more depressive symptoms and lower life satisfaction over the 3-year period. Each hypothesized mediator plays a role in explaining the effect of visual impairment on declines in quality of life; however, the strongest mediating effects are found for self-efficacy. Discussion. By identifying multiple pathways through which visual impairment diminishes quality of life among older adults, this study highlights the importance of multipronged intervention efforts.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A negativeSelf-perception of aging is an indicator of risk for future disability in ADL and factors such as a low-economic status, living alone, multiple chronic medical conditions, and depressive feelings contribute to a negative self-perceived aging but do not explain the relationship with incident activities of daily living disability.
Abstract: Objectives. This study examines the relationship between self-perception of aging and vulnerability to adverse outcomes in adults aged 65–70 years using data from a cohort of 1,422 participants in Lausanne, Switzerland. Methods. A positive or negative score of perception of aging was established using the Attitudes Toward Own Aging subscale including 5 items of the Philadelphia Geriatric Center Morale Scale. Falls, hospitalizations, and difficulties in basic and instrumental activities of daily living (ADL) collected in the first 3 years of follow-up were considered adverse outcomes. The relationship between perception and outcomes were evaluated using multiple logistic regression models adjusting for chronic medical conditions, depressive feelings, living arrangement, and socioeconomic characteristics. Results. The strongest associations of self-perception of aging with outcomes were observed for basic and instrumental ADL. Associations with falls and hospitalizations were not constant but could be explained by health characteristics.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Results provide evidence for gendered experiences in the sexual life course and suggest Reverse causality may explain the happiness-frequency findings for both men and women.
Abstract: Objective. To examine sexual frequency decline among American men and women between the ages of 44 and 72 born from 1933 to 1948. Method. Using data from the National Health and Social Life Survey (NHSLS) and the National Social Life, Health, and Aging Project (NSHAP), the decline in sexual frequency is decomposed into declines due to changes in marital status, physical health, and happiness. We examine the contribution of both changes in the composition of the population with respect to these factors as well as changes in the association between these factors and sexual frequency by age. Results. For women, change in the proportion widowed is a significant factor in sexual frequency decline, as is change in the association between happiness and sexual frequency. Among men, both poorer physical health at older ages and a decrease in its association with frequency are significant factors in the decline. A change in the association between happiness and frequency is also a significant factor for men. Reverse causality may explain the happiness –frequency findings for both men and women. Discussion. Results provide evidence for gendered experiences in the sexual life course.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined exposure to and appraisal of care-related stressors associated with use of adult day services (ADS) by family caregivers of individuals with dementia, using a within-person withdrawal design.
Abstract: Objectives. This article examined exposure to and appraisal of care-related stressors associated with use of adult day services (ADS) by family caregivers of individuals with dementia. Methods. Using a within-person withdrawal design (A-B-A-B), we compared caregivers’ exposure to and appraisal of behavior problems on days their relative attended and did not attend ADS. Participants were 121 family caregivers enrolling a relative with dementia in an ADS program. Daily assessments were obtained prior to the person’s attending ADS for the first time and after 1 and 2 months of attendance on days the person attended and did not attend ADS. Results. Total exposure to stressors and stress appraisals decreased significantly over time on ADS days compared with non-ADS days. Most of this difference was accounted by the time the person with dementia was away from the caregiver, but there were also significant reductions in behavioral problems during the evening and improved sleep imme diately following ADS use. Discussion. ADS use lowered caregivers’ exposure to stressors and may improve behavior and sleep for people with dementia on days they have ADS. The study highlights how a within-person design can identify the effects of an intermittent intervention, such as ADS.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Findings suggest that feelings of obligation may be accounting for a significant proportion of the negative effects of familism on caregivers' mental and subjective physical health.
Abstract: Objectives. We aimed to examine the effects of 2 factors of familism (Familial Obligations and Expected Support from the Family) and Cultural Justification on caregivers’ mental and physical health as mediated by coping style. Methods. We used a probability sample of 95 African American and 65 White family caregivers for people with dementia to test hypotheses based on the updated sociocultural stress and coping model using path analysis. Main outcome measures included depressive symptomatology, various psychological symptoms, and subjective physical health. Results. Both Familial Obligations and Cultural Justification had an indirect effect on poor mental health and subjec tive physical health via avoidant coping. Expected Support from the Family had no effect on caregivers’ health outcomes. Discussion. These findings suggest that feelings of obligation may be accounting for a significant proportion of the negative effects of familism on caregivers’ mental and subjective physical health. Expectations of familial social support may be relatively inconsequential in this process.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The results indicated that for many cognitive abilities declines in performance did not manifest until after age 75 and self-reported health was related to level of performance more than changes over age.
Abstract: Objectives. Among the key targets of inquiry in cognitive aging are (1) the description of cognitive changes with advancing age and (2) the association of such cognitive changes with modulating factors in the changing epidemiological context.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Results suggest that bolstering older adults' capitals, particularly among lower socioeconomic status groups, can increase volunteer engagement and intensity and reduce cessation.
Abstract: Objectives. We aim to understand how human, social, and cultural capitals are associated with the volunteer process, that is, engagement (starting), intensity (number of hours), and cessation (stopping), among older adults. Method. Data from the 2000 through 2008 Health and Retirement Study and the 2001 through 2009 Consumption and Activity Mail Survey provide a sample of 4,526 respondents. Random-effects pooled time series analyses incorporate not only the presence of various types of capital but also the quality of that capital. Results. Human and cultural capitals were positively associated with increased volunteer involvement. Effects of social capital (relationships in the family, employment status, and the community) depended on the quality of the relationships, not necessarily on their presence alone. Discussion. Results suggest that bolstering older adults’ capitals, particularly among lower socioeconomic status groups, can increase volunteer engagement and intensity and reduce cessation. Additionally, a variety of organizational policies including respite programs for caregivers and employer policies allowing employees to reduce their work hours might indirectly affect participation rates and commitment. Potential pools of volunteers exist in families, workplaces, and religious organizations, but more research is necessary to identify how to recruit and retain individuals in social networks where volunteer participatory rates are low.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Improvement of general skill was found for the young adults and the elderly adults showed enhancement after the 12-hr period, revealing brain plasticity similar to young adults, while regarding SSL, no improvement was found in either age group and at either consolidation intervals.
Abstract: Objectives. Implicit skill learning underlies not only motor but also cognitive and social skills; it is therefore an important aspect of life from infancy to old age. We studied aging effects on the time course of implicit skill consolidation. Methods. Young and elderly adults performed a probabilistic implicit sequence-learning task before and after a 12-, a 24-hr, and a 1-week interval. The task enabled us to separate the components of skill learning and consolidation: (a) general skill and (b) sequence-specific learning (SSL). Results. We found improvement of general skill for the young adults in all delay conditions. The elderly adults also showed enhancement after the 12-hr period, revealing brain plasticity similar to young adults. This improvement disappeared in the 24-hr and the 1-week delay conditions. Regarding SSL, no improvement was found in either age group and at either consolidation intervals. In contrast, sequences-specific knowledge decreased in the elderly group independently of the delay.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is concluded that perceiving control may serve as both a precursor and an outcome of health and social support across the adult age range and suggest routes for further inquiry.
Abstract: Objectives. T o examine antecedent–consequent relations of perceived control to health and social support across adulthood and old age. Methods. W e applied (multigroup) change score models to two waves of data collected 9 years apart from 6,210 participants of the Midlife in the United States survey (MIDUS, 24–75 years at baseline). We used composite measures of perceived control (personal mastery and constraints), health (chronic conditions, acute conditions, and functional limitations), and social support (support and strain associated with spouse/partner, family, and friends). Results. Analyses revealed evidence for direct and independent multidirectional accounts. Greater initial control predicted weaker declines in health and stronger increases in support. In turn, increases in control were predicted by better initial health and more support. Changes in control were also accompanied by concurrent changes in the other two domains, and relations involving control were larger in size than those between health and support. We found only small sociodemographic differences across age, gender, and education group.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This study aims to improve the understanding of retirement by examining the impact of midlife educational, work, health, and family experiences on early retirement intentions and behavior by distinguishing theoretically and empirically between financial and nonfinancial preretirement factors through which midlife experiences could affect retirement.
Abstract: Objectives. In empirical studies on predictors of retirement, midlife experiences have often remained implicit or been neglected. This study aims to improve our understanding of retirement by examining the impact of midlife educational, work, health, and family experiences on early retirement intentions and behavior. We distinguish theoretically and empirically between financial and nonfinancial preretirement factors through which midlife experiences could affect retirement. Methods. Using panel data of 1,229 Dutch male older workers, we estimated linear regression models to explain retirement intentions and logistic regression models to explain retirement behavior. Results. Midlife experiences in all studied life spheres are related to retirement intentions. Educational investments, job changes, late transitions into parenthood, and late divorces are associated with weaker intentions to retire early. Midlife health problems are related to stronger early retirement intentions. For midlife work and family experiences, the relationships are (partly) mediated by the preretirement financial opportunity structure. In the educational, work, and health spheres, the preretirement nonfinancial situation has a mediating effect. Only some of the predictors of retirement intentions also predicted retirement behavior. Discussion. Given the destandardization of life courses, information on distal life experiences might become even more important toward understanding retirement in the future.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is demonstrated that combining effortful activities with restful activities leads to greater happiness among older adults and personality traits such as extraversion play a decisive role in the kind of activities that contribute most to daily happiness.
Abstract: Objectives: The main aim of this study was to examine the roles of physical passivity and extraversion in the relationship between daily engagement in activities and daily happiness among older adults. Method: A day reconstruction method was used to accurately examine day-to-day activities and happiness. In total, 438 participants completed a monthly electronic diary survey over a 2-year period, generating 79,181 reported activities and momentary happiness scores. Results: The results show that happiness increases when older adults combine effortful social, physical, cognitive, and household activities with restful activities. Furthermore, participation in social activities mediated the direct relationship between extraversion and happiness. Also, individuals who score high on extraversion derive greater happiness from social activities compared with their low-extravert counterparts.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Laypeople's views of wisdom are not unitary, and the way in which wisdom is viewed is related to how it is seen as developing in a person's life, and empirical differences in implicit theories of wisdom map onto theoretical differences in the views of Wisdom researchers.
Abstract: Objectives. This study examined individual differences in laypeople’s conceptions of wisdom using a person-oriented approach, as previous studies using a priori group variables may have underestimated the variability. Although there is a tradition of examining people’s implicit theories of wisdom, this study is the first to also investigate their views of how wisdom develops. Method. A total of 1,955 participants rated the importance of 8 items concerning what wisdom is and 9 items concerning how wisdom develops. Results. Cluster analyses identified 2 conceptions of what wisdom is. Participants with a “cognitive conception” rated cognitive and reflective characteristics as central to wisdom; participants with an “integrative conception” additionally endorsed affective characteristics. Conceptions varied by age and sex. Concerning the development of wisdom, participants with a cognitive conception viewed learning from experiences and from wise persons as central; participants with an integrative conception rated experience with life challenges as equally important. Discussion. Laypeople’s views of wisdom are not unitary, and the way in which wisdom is viewed is related to how it is seen as developing in a person’s life. These empirical differences in implicit theories of wisdom map onto theoretical differences in the views of wisdom researchers.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The findings support the interpretation that cognitive decline is not due to chronological aging per se but rather reflects multiple causal factors from a broad range of biological and physical health domains that operate along the age continuum.
Abstract: N recent decades, despite many advances in developmen-tal designs (e.g., Nesselroade & Baltes, 1979) and statis-tical procedures (e.g., McArdle, 2009), one challenging constant remains—the all but ubiquitous use of chronologi-cal age as the developmental time metric for charting performance differences and changes. Both earlier (e.g., Birren, 1959; Wohlwill, 1973) and more recently (Anstey, 2008; Birren, 1999; Dixon, 2011), the strengths and weak-nesses of chronological age as a developmental index have been well documented. Although heuristically useful for in-dexing age-related cognitive and functional change, chro-nological age is but an indirect reflection of accumulated biological and environmental influences. Consequently, chronological age is not a causal mechanism underlying cognitive and functional decline, at least in the sense that merely knowing that chronological age is associated with cognitive decline says nothing about specific or general mechanisms underlying age-related cognitive impairment. Instead, age is a temporal dimension along which biological, environmental, health, and neurological causal factors operate (Baltes & Willis, 1977; MacDonald, Dixon, Cohen, & Hazlitt, 2004). For example, Peto and Doll (1997) noted that while increasing age is associated with increasing mor-bidity, age per se does not cause disease (or health). Rather, as natural selection buffers more strongly against death dur-ing early adulthood and mid-life as compared with late life, the increasing incidence of disease and impairment ob-served in late life is a function of this common set of evolu-tionary pressures. From this perspective, chronological age appears best conceived as a proxy for true mechanistic changes that influence functional capacity and adaptivity (including, but not limited to, cognition) across the lifetime.Most longitudinal cognitive aging research parameterizes developmental time using three time basis structures (see Morrell, Brant, & Ferrucci, 2009): chronological age (e.g., years since birth), measurement occasion (e.g., 0, 1, 2 . . . ), and time in study (years from baseline assessment). Although convenient, plotting within-person cognitive change as a function of chronological age may fail to capture important underlying sources of heterogeneity. For example, variability due to underlying health conditions (e.g., cardiovascular disease [CVD]) may be misattributed to age (Spiro & Brady, 2008). Moreover, the exclusive use of chronological age assumes that within-person change in cognition is adequately described by average population age trends, an assumption that has long been qualified (Baltes & Willis, 1977; Thorvaldsson, Hofer, Hassing, & Johansson, 2008). Ultimately, a comprehensive understanding of age-related decline in cognition requires focusing on develop-ment as a function of change in critical functions (e.g., biological, psychosocial) that are expressed over time (Li & Schmiedek, 2002; Sliwinski & Mogle, 2008). Among recent promising avenues are time-to-event parameterizations, which can be employed to index change in cognitive func-tioning in relation to the onset of key biological or health events believed to underlie within-person change (e.g., years pre/postmenopause; Thilers, MacDonald, Nilsson, & Herlitz, 2010). Arguably, advances in our theoretical understanding

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is suggested that health differences between Black Americans and other ethnic groups including White and Mexican Americans persist in the trajectory of multimorbidity even when population heterogeneity is adjusted.
Abstract: Objectives. This research examines intra- and interpersonal differences in multiple chronic conditions reported by Americans aged 51 and older for a period up to 11 years. It focuses on how changes in multimorbidity vary across White, Black, and Mexican Americans. Methods. Data came from 17,517 respondents of the Health and Retirement Study (1995-2006) with up to 5 repeated observations. Hierarchical linear models were employed to analyze ethnic variations in temporal changes of reported comorbidities. Findings. Middle-aged and older Americans have on average nearly 2 chronic diseases at the baseline, which in- creased to almost 3 conditions in 11 years. White Americans differ from Black and Mexican Americans in terms of level and rate of change of multimorbidity. Mexican Americans demonstrate lower initial levels and slower accumulation of comorbidities relative to Whites. In contrast, Blacks showed an elevated level of multimorbidity throughout the 11-year period of observation, although their rate of change slowed relative to Whites. Discussion. These results suggest that health differences between Black Americans and other ethnic groups including White and Mexican Americans persist in the trajectory of multimorbidity even when population heterogeneity is adjusted. Further research is needed concerning the impact of health disadvantages and differential mortality that may have oc- curred before middle age as well as exploring the role of nativity, the nature of self-reported diseases, and heterogeneity underlying the average trajectory of multimorbidity for ethnic elders.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Physical function significantly declined over 3 years, in particular in the oldest group, and a subtle decline in psychological health paralleled decline in physical function but did not accelerate it.
Abstract: Background. Decline of physical function with age is associated with substantial health consequences. Physical and psychological functioning is linked, but the temporal nature of this association remains unclear. Methods. Three-year follow-up data from men and women (n = 1,741), aged 68–82 years, in the longitudinal study on nutrition and successful aging (NuAge; Quebec, Canada) were used. Growth curve modeling was performed to examine trajectories of a global physical performance score across time as conditioned by cognition and depression. Results. Significant decline in physical function was observed ( p 77 years; age 2 : p < .01) but not affected by slight decline in cognition or depression. Yet, people with lower cognition level and more depressive symptoms show lower physical capacity throughout the entire follow-up period (p < .0001). Conclusions. Physical function significantly declined over 3 years, in particular in the oldest group. A subtle decline in psychological health paralleled decline in physical function but did not accelerate it.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Competence in different cognitive domains--memory, inductive reasoning, processing speed, and global mental status--predicts prospectively measured everyday functioning among older adults is examined to predict changes in everyday functioning using cognitive tests.
Abstract: Objective. The present study sought to predict changes in everyday functioning using cognitive tests. Methods. Data from the Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly trial were used to examine the extent to which competence in different cognitive domains—memory, inductive reasoning, processing speed, and global mental status—predicts prospectively measured everyday functioning among older adults. Coefficients of determination for baseline levels and trajectories of everyday functioning were estimated using parallel process latent growth models. Results. Each cognitive domain independently predicts a significant proportion of the variance in baseline and trajec tory change of everyday functioning, with inductive reasoning explaining the most variance (R 2 = .175) in baseline functioning and memory explaining the most variance (R 2 = .057) in changes in everyday functioning. Discussion. Inductive reasoning is an important determinant of current everyday functioning in community-dwelling older adults, suggesting that successful performance in daily tasks is critically dependent on executive cognitive function. On the other hand, baseline memory function is more important in determining change over time in everyday functioning, suggesting that some participants with low baseline memory function may reflect a subgroup with incipient progressive neurologic disease.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Findings confirm the hypothesis that WM capacity explains age differences in text processing, while it is itself accounted for by the efficiency of inhibiting irrelevant information and by speed of processing.
Abstract: Objectives Age-related changes in the efficiency of various general cognitive mechanisms have been evoked to ac count for age-related differences between young and older adults in text comprehension performance Using structural equation modeling, we investigate the relationship between age, working memory (WM), inhibition-related mechanisms, processing speed, and text comprehension, focusing on surface and text-based levels of processing Methods Eighty-nine younger (M = 2311 years) and 102 older (M = 7050 years) adults were presented text comprehension, WM, inhibition, and processing speed tasks In the text comprehension task, the demand on the memory system was manipulated, by allowing (text present) or not (text absent) viewing the text during the answering phase Results As expected, age differences were larger when the text was absent The best fitting model showed that WM mediated the influence of age on both text processing conditions, whereas age-related variance in WM was, in turn, accounted for by processing speed and inhibition Discussion These findings confirm the hypothesis that WM capacity explains age differences in text processing, while it is itself accounted for by the efficiency of inhibiting irrelevant information and by speed of processing

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The death of a child or grandchild, which may be considered a highly stressful event, was associated to a higher rate of cognitive decline, whereas more chronic stressors, such as the illness of a partner or relative, or serious conflicts, were associated with better cognitive function.
Abstract: Objectives. The study examined the accumulated as well as the differential influence of negative life events on cogni tive decline in older persons, and whether this association was different for persons with normal and poor cognitive functioning, and for ApoE e4 carriers and noncarriers. Methods. We used data from the Longitudinal Aging Study Amsterdam (N = 1,356). Data were analyzed using linear mixed models. Results. We found differential associations for different negative life events with cognitive decline none of which were mediated by depressive symptoms. The death of a child or grandchild, which may be considered a highly stressful event, was associated to a higher rate of cognitive decline, whereas more chronic stressors, such as the illness of a partner or relative, or serious conflicts, were associated with better cognitive function. The associations between life events and cognitive function were stronger in ApoE e4 carriers compared with noncarriers, suggesting that this gene plays a role in the association between stress and cognitive function. Discussion. Highly stressful events seem to be associated with a higher rate of cognitive decline, whereas mild chronic stressors may have an arousing function that stimulates cognitive performance.