Showing papers in "Management Information Systems Quarterly in 1999"

A set of principles for conducting and evaluating interpretive field studies in information systems

Abstract: This article discusses the conduct and evaluatoin of interpretive research in information systems. While the conventions for evaluating information systems case studies conducted according to the natural science model of social science are now widely accepted, this is not the case for interpretive field studies. A set of principles for the conduct and evaluation of interpretive field research in information systems is proposed, along with their philosophical rationale. The usefulness of the principles is illustrated by evaluating three published interpretive field studies drawn from the IS research literature. The intention of the paper is to further reflect and debate on the important subject of grounding interpretive research methodology.

Information technology adoption across time: a cross-sectional comparison of pre-adoption and post-adoption beliefs

Abstract: The process of information technology adoption and use is critical to deriving the benefits of information technology. Yet from a conceptual standpoint, few empirical studies have made a distinction between individuals' pre-adoption and post-adoption (continued use) beliefs and attitudes. This distinction is crucial in understanding and managing this process over time. The current study combines innovation diffusion and attitude theories in a theoretical framework to examine differences in pre-adoption and post-adoption beliefs and attitudes. The examination of Windows technology in a single organization indicates that users and potential adopters of information technology differ on their determinants of behavioral intention, attitude, and subjective norm. Potential adopter intention to adopt is solely determined by normative pressures, whereas user intention is solely determined by attitude. In addition, potential adopters base their attitude on a richer set of innovation characteristics than users. Whereas pre-adoption attitude is based on perceptions of usefulness, ease-of-use, result demonstrability, visibility, and trialability, post-adoption attitude is only based on instrumentality beliefs of usefulness and perceptions of image enhancements.

Social cognitive theory and individual reactions to computing technology: a longitudinal study

Abstract: A model, based on Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory, was developed to test the influence of computer self-efficacy, outcome expectations, affect, and anxiety on computer usage The model was tested using longitudinal data gathered from 394 end users over a one-year interval Significant relationships were found between computer self-efficacy and outcome expectations, and between self-efficacy and affect and anxiety and use Performance outcomes were found to influence affect and use, while affect was significantly related to use Overall, the findings provide strong confirmation that both self-efficacy and outcome expectations impact on an individual's affective and behavioral reactions to information technology

Creation of favorable user perceptions: exploring the role of intrinsic motivation

Abstract: A key issue facing information systems researchers and practitioners has been the difficulty in creating favorable user reactions to new technologies. Insufficient or ineffective training has been identified as one of the key factors underlying this disappointing reality. Among the various enhancements to training being examined in research, the role of intrinsic motivation as a lever to create favorable user perceptions has not been sufficiently exploited. In this research, two studies were conducted to compare a traditional training method with a training method that included a component aimed at enhancing intrinsic motivation. The results strongly favored the use of an intrinsic motivator during training. Key implications for theory and practice are discussed.

Empirical research in information systems: the practice of relevance

Abstract: This commentary discusses why most IS acade- mic research today lacks relevance to practice and suggests tactics, procedures, and guidelines that the IS academic community might follow in their research efforts and articles to introduce rel- evance to practitioners. The commentary begins by defining what is meant by relevancy in the context of academic research. It then explains why there is a lack of attention to relevance with- in the IS scholarly literature. Next, actions that can be taken to make relevance a more central aspect of IS research and to communicate impli- cations of IS research more effectively to IS pro- fessionals are suggested.

Arrangements for information technology governance: a theory of multiple contingencies

Abstract: A key issue facing information systems researchers and practitioners has been the difficulty in IT governance arrangements refers to the patterns of authority for key IT activities in business firms, including IT infrastructure, IT use, and project management. During the last 20 years, three primary modes of IT governance have become prevalent: centralized, decentralized, and the federal mode. These modes vary in the extent to which corporate IS, divisional IS, and line management are vested with authority for the key IT activities. While a significant volume of research has examined the influence of contingency factors on the choice of a specific mode of IT governance, most of this research has examined the singular effects of the contingency factors. The assumption underlying these studies is as though the organizational contingencies act in isolation in influencing the mode of IT governance. However, in reality, business firms are subject to the pulls and pressures of multiple, rather than singular, contingency forces. Therefore, to acknowledge this reality, this study applies the theory of multiple contingencies to examine how contingency forces influence the mode of IT governance. The theory argues that contingency forces interact with each other by either amplifying, dampening, or overriding their mutual influences on the IT governance mode. Three scenarios of multiple, interacting contingencies are identified: reinforcing, conflicting, and dominating. Each of these scenarios of multiple contingencies is hypothesized to influence a particular mode of IT governance. Utilizing rich data from case studies of eight firms, empirical evidence is presented to support these hypotheses. Implications of the multiple contingencies theory for research and for practice are presented.

GIS for district-level administration in India: problems and opportunities

Abstract: This paper describes a research study, carried out over the period 1993-95, of the efforts made in India to develop and use geographical information systems (GIS) to aid district-level administration. We give a detailed description of our research approach, drawing from contextualism as a broad research methodology and using actor-network theory for analytical purposes. The main section of the paper provides an in-depth analysis of a major GIS initiative from a particular Indian government ministry. We conclude that the creation and maintenance of a relatively stable set of key actors with aligned interests related to the GIS technology had not been achieved in any of the districts studied by the end of the research period. Our analysis leads to implications for future action that go beyond traditional prescriptions, such as improved participation or better training, toward the need for higher level-interventions in such areas as educational processes and administrative structures. We then turn to criteria for judging the merits of an intensive research study and illustrate to what extent this study satisfies the criteria. Finally, we draw conclusions on the contribution of this paper to the promotion of intensive research and to the opening up of new fields of IS research.

The implications of information technology infrastructure for business process redesign

Abstract: Business process redesign (BPR) is a pervasive but challenging tool for transforming organizations. Information technology plays an important role by either enabling or constraining successful BPR. This paper explores the links between firm-wide IT infrastructure and business process change. IT infrastructure is the base foundation of the IT portfolio, which is shared throughout the firm in the form of reliable services, and is usually coordinated by the IS group. IT infrastructure capability includes both the technical and managerial expertise required to provide reliable physical services and extensive electronic connectivity within and outside the firm.Exploratory case analysis of four firms (two in retail and two in petroleum) was used to understand the ways IT infrastructure contributes to success in implementing BPR. The finding was that all firms needed a basic level of IT infrastructure capability to implement BPR. The firms that had developed a higher level of IT infrastructure capabilities, before or concurrent with undertaking business process redesign, were able to implement extensive changes to their business processes over relatively short time frames. The higher level of infrastructure capability was provided in the form of (1) a set of infrastructure services that spanned organizational boundaries such as those between functions, business units, or firms, and (2) the ability of the infrastructure to reach particular constituencies inside and outside the firm to transfer information and process complex transactions.The more extensive business process changes were more innovative and radical, crossing business and functional unit boundaries, and resulted in more significant business impact. The practical implication of the study is that before embarking on any form of BPR, managers should complete a business audit of their IT infrastructure capabilities, as these capabilities have an important impact on the speed and nature of business process change.

Rigor and relevance in MIS research: beyond the approach of positivism alone

Abstract: Benbasat and Zmud offer a diagnosis of "why one tends today to observe a lack of relevance to practice in IS research" and a prescription of guidelines that "the IS academic community might follow to introduce relevance into their research efforts and articles." I will comment, first, on the ramifications of their self-avowed positivist orientation; second, on their model-inuse of what relevant research is (i.e., the instrumental model); and third, on the need for the IS research community to take a broad approach to the matter of relevance. I will also refer to the respective commentaries offered by Applegate, by Davenport and Markus, and by Lyytinen.

Explanations from intelligent systems: theoretical foundations and implications for practice

Abstract: Information systems with an "intelligent" or "knowledge" component are now prevalent and include knowledge-based systems, decision support systems, intelligent agents and knowledge management systems These systems are in principle capable of explaining their reasoning or justifying their behavior There appears to be a lack of understanding, however, of the benefits that can flow from explanation use, and how an explanation function should be constructed Work with newer types of intelligent systems and help functions for everyday systems, such as word-processors, appears in many cases to neglect lessons learned in the past This paper attempts to rectify this situation by drawing together the considerable body of work on the nature and use of explanations Empirical studies, mainly with knowledge-based systems, are reviewed and linked to a sound theoretical base The theoretical base combines a cognitive effort perspective, cognitive learning theory, and Toulmin's model of argumentation Conclusions drawn from the review have both practical and theoretical significance Explanations are important to users in a number of circumstances - when the user perceives an anomaly, when they want to learn, or when they need a specific piece of knowledge to participate properly in problem solving Explanations, when suitably designed, have been shown to improve performance and learning and result in more positive user perceptions of a system The design is important, however, because it appears that explanations will not be used if the user has to exert "too much" effort to get them Explanations should be provided automatically if this can be done relatively unobtrusively, or by hypertext links, and should be context-specific rather than generic Explanations that conform to Toulmin's model of argumentation, in that they provide adequate justification for the knowledge offered, should be more persuasive and lead to greater trust, agreement, satisfaction, and acceptance - of the explanation and possibly also of the system as a whole

Organizational mechanisms for enhancing user innovation in information technology

Abstract: Fostering information technology innovation has assumed primacy in discussions of information systems management. Changes in the nature of available information technologies and their potential applications underscore the importance of creating new knowledge for deploying a technology within an organization rather than transferring such knowledge from external sources. Technology users remain a largely untapped source for such knowledge creation. This paper argues that deliberate organizational design actions in the form of mechanisms can enhance technology users' propensity to innovate in information technology. Specifically, a taxonomy of organizational mechanisms is developed based on the ability of various mechanisms to facilitate knowledge acquisition and knowledge conversion. The conceptual taxonomy is populated with specific design actions described in the literature utilizing a Delphi study. The effects of various classes of mechanisms on three key antecedents of user propensity to innovate in IT: technology cognizance, ability to explore a technology, and intention to explore a technology, are tested using a field study. Results provide support for the conceptual taxonomy. Implications for theory and practice are offered.

IT-intensive value innovation in the electronic economy: insights from Marshall industries

Abstract: The emerging electronic economy is bringing with it new forms of IT-enabled intermediation, virtual supply chains, rapidly changing electronic commerce technologies, increasing knowledge intensity, and unprecedented sensitivity for time-to-market by customers. Customers are demanding more value, customized to their exact needs, at less cost, and as quickly as possible. The enterprises that will survive in such a demanding environment will need to innovate and invent new ways of creating value, and will require different enterprise architectures and different IT infrastructures. This article focuses on providing a framework for guiding an enterprise as it transforms itself to function more effectively in the electronic economy. Using the distribution industry in general and Marshall Industries in particular as a context, the article draws insights for transforming an extended enterprise’s architecture and its IT infrastructure to enable new ways of creating value in the electronic economy. The article provides a staged junction box model for guiding the transformation, and also articulates the elements of the new value logic for enterprises in the electronic economy.

Six myths of information and markets: information technology networks, electronic commerce, and the battle for consumer surplus

Abstract: The infusion of powerful information networks into business environments is beginning to have a profound impact on the nature of governance between buyers and sellers in the marketplace. Most articles in this area emphasize the benefits to the consumer side of the equation due to reduced coordination, search, and transactional costs. This article presents a broader view of information and markets by elucidating innovative ways that sellers can survive in intensely competitive markets. The article is framed in terms of six myths and counter myths of information technology and effective markets. The myths provide a conventional view of how increased customization and outsourcing, open architectures, a larger customer base, and low price guarantees will benefit the buyer. The counter myths illustrate that it is altogether feasible for IT to enable supplier strategies that extract consumer surplus. For instance, suppliers could use IT to price discriminate by tailoring product offerings and charging buyers as much as they are willing to pay. They could also segment markets making comparative shopping difficult, thus avoiding the competitive equilibrium. Also, suppliers could focus on the creation of networks that lock in customers or follow aggressive pricing strategies that deter price competition. Both the myths and counter myths are presented and examined in a polemical format using simple, fundamental economic arguments. We hope to provide provocative new avenues for discourse in this area by recognizing the complexity of interactions between buyers and suppliers in a highly networked environment

How much bandwidth is enough? a longitudinal examination of media characteristics and group outcomes

Abstract: This study addresses three key issues related to media differences among computer-mediated groups meeting face-to-face, synchronously and asynchronously: First, do groups using different media perceive characteristics of these media differently? Second, do media-related perceptions remain static or change as they are used over time? And finally, do media differences result in performance differences, i.e., do richer media result in better performance for equivocal tasks as predicted by bandwidth theories?Some results of this study tend to support media-characteristics theories while others offer limited support for more evolutionary perspectives. For instance, initially, face-to-face groups found their medium to be warmer, have a better interface and be more effective compared to their distributed counterparts. While many of these initial perceptions lingered over time, there was one notable exception. At the start of the study, face-to-face groups rated their medium as being more effective than synchronous groups; however by the end of the study, no significant differences were apparent. Moreover, despite the persistently lower social presence of leaner media, distributed-synchronous groups performed better than their face-to-face counterparts. Finally, the two types of distributed groups-synchronous and asynchronous-did not differ significantly in their perceptions or performance. This study improves our understanding of distributed interaction while simultaneously highlighting the need to further investigate the relationships among tasks, technologies and teams over time.

Horizontal mechanisms under differing IS organization contexts

Abstract: Horizontal mechanisms are structural overlays (such as roles and groups) and non-structural devices (such as physical co-location) that are designed to facilitate cross-unit collaboration. The objective of this study is to increase our cumulative knowledge about what top-down mechanisms are being used to promote the coordination of IS activities across corporate/division boundaries. Propositions about how mechanism usage differs under Centralized versus Federal IS organization contexts are developed based on a synthesis of prior organization science and empirical IS literature. Multiple methods are used to collect data from IS and non-IS senior managers from two case sites with theoretically different IS coordination needs. As predicted, multiple types of structural and non-structural mechanisms were implemented for business-IS coordination in the company with a Centralized IS context, and for corporate IS-decentralized IS coordination in the company with a Federal IS context. An unexpected finding was that mechanisms for both of these kinds of IS coordination were valued at each case site. The prediction that a formal group mechanism would be perceived as more effective for achieving cross-unit coordination than an integrator role mechanism was not supported. The article concludes with a discussion of implications for research and practice.

Empirical research in information systems: on the relevance of practice in thinking of IS research

Abstract: I found the article by Benbasat and Zmud both interesting and provocative. Because it is written by two leading North American IS scholars— both former or current editor-in-chiefs of MISQ— the paper's call for a greater concern for relevance in our research should not be taken lightly. I think that the propositions Benbasat and Zmud suggest are welcome and help set up directions for future research procedures in IS. As a European scholar who has taught and done research on both sides of the Atlantic, I do not see all issues raised, however, in the same light. In this commentary I highlight some of these differences.

Learning dysfunctions in information systems development: overcoming the social defenses with transitional objects

Abstract: Given the continuing prevalence of IS failure, this paper contends that a fresh theoretical perspective and new methodological principles are required. We argue that learning is crucial to the success of ISD, and that many IS projects miscarry due to the inherently high levels of stress and anxiety which imbue ISD and which elicit defence-avoidance behaviour patterns in project teams. These social defences refer to modes of group behaviour that operate primarily to reduce anxiety, rather than reflecting genuine engagement with the task at hand. We argue that the operation of these defences can come to paralyse the learning processes that are critical to effective IS developmentFollowing a clinical research strategy, case studies are presented illustrating the working of defensive processes which undermined three IS projects. Three social defences are illustrated: the organisational ritual, the sibling horde and paranoid isolationism. Drawing on psychodynamic theory, the concept of transitional space is introduced. Such spaces have two important aspects: a supportive psychological climate and a supply of appropriate transitional objects (i.e. entities that provide temporary emotional support).It is argued that IS development should be re-framed as a transitional space, with particular attention given to the selection of appropriate transitional objects to assist in breaking down defensive processes. The cases are revisited to illustrate this approach in action: useful insights and positive practical outcomes are shown. It is concluded that the present psychodynamic perspective has considerable value in relation to the IS discipline: theoretically in terms of our understanding of the social dynamics of ISD and at a practical level too, through the provision of diagnostic concepts and remedial measures that have significant potential to enhance IS praxis and to redress the high rate of IS failure.

The impact of goals on software project management: an experimental investigation

Abstract: Over the last three decades, a significant stream of research in organizational behavior has established the importance of goals in regulating human behavior. The precise degree of association between goals and action, however, remains an empirical question since people may, for example, make errors and/or lack the ability to attain their goals. This may be particularly true in dynamically complex task environments, such as the management of software development.To date, goal setting research in the software engineering field has emphasized the development of tools to identify, structure, and measure software development goals. In contrast, there has been little micro-empirical analysis of how goals affect managerial decision behavior. The current study attempts to address this research problem. We investigated the impact of different project goals on software project planning and resource allocation decisions and, in turn, on project performance. The research question was explored through a role-playing project simulation game in which subjects played the role of software project managers. Two multi-goal structures were tested, one for cost/schedule and the other quality/schedule. The cost/schedule group opted for smaller cost adjustments and was more willing to extend the project completion time. The quality/schedule group, on the other hand, acquired a larger staff level in the later stages of the project, and allocated a higher percentage of the larger staff level to quality assurance. A cost/schedule goal led to lower cost, while a quality/schedule goal led to higher quality. These findings suggest that given specific software project goals, managers do make planning and resource allocation choices in such a way that will meet those goals. The implications of the results for project management practice and research are discussed.

Ethics and information systems: the corporate domain

Abstract: IS-related ethical quandaries are receiving an increasing amount of attention. However, linkages to the normative theories of business ethics, which can be used in resolving these quandaries in the corporate domain, have been lacking. This paper enumerates and explains the three major normative theories. The stockholder theory holds that managers should resolve ethical quandaries by taking actions that increase the long- term profits to the stockholders without violating the law or engaging in fraud or deception. The stakeholder theory claims that managers should resolve ethical quandaries by balancing stakeholder interests without violating the rights of any stakeholder. The social contract theory states that managers should increase social welfare above what it would be in the absence of the existence of corporations without violating the basic canons of justice. The application of these theories to IS-related ethical quandaries is discussed, and a specific quandary dealing with a real-world example -- Blockbuster Video's reported plans to market customer lists -- is explored in depth. The managerial challenges associated with the theories are then explored.

Structuring time and task in electronic brainstorming

Abstract: There are many ways in which a GSS can be used to support group brainstorming. This paper reports the results of an experiment that manipulated task structure and time structure. Groups electronically brainstormed on intact tasks (where all parts of the task were presented to the groups). The time periods in which groups worked were either one 30-minut time period or three 10-minute time periods, separated by two-minute breaks. Groups in the partitioned task treatment generated 40% more ideas, but there were no time effects. These differences are attributed to the ability of the partitioined task to refocus members' attention more evenly across the entire solution space.

Assessing the health of an information systems applications portfolio: an example from process manufacturing

Abstract: This paper presents a model of the IS applications portfolio, and illustrates how its "health" can be assessed, through an example from process manufacturing. The health assessment is based on an evaluation by senior managers of a business unit's portfolio of information systems. This assessment is made on five separate, but related, attributes of each system in the portfolio: importance, investment, technical quality, use, and management value.The "Health Grid" is introduced as a way of representing the IS applications portfolio in order to facilitate the assessment and interpretation of its health. One of the advantages of using the grid is to make such an assessment explicit, transparent, and discussible. In an example, the Health Grid is used to assess and interpret the IS applications portfolio of the most profitable business unit in a large process manufacturing firm. The applications portfolio, consisting of 18 systems, was generally assessed as requiring attention. For example, there was no evidence of any relationship between the investment in a given system and its management value. The paper includes a suggested approach for using the Health Grid and an analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of the approach. A description of the changes made to the IS portfolio in the example firm after the initial data collection completes the paper.

Rigor and relevance: careers on the line

Abstract: This case was originally published as part of a "hypertext" paper: King, J.L. and Applegate, L.M., "Crisis in the Case Study Crisis: Marginal Diminishing Returns to Scale in the QuantiativeQualitative Research Debate," Information Systems and Qualitative Research (ed. Allen Lee, Jonathon Liebenau, andJan DeGross), Chapman Publishing, 1997. The paper and case are also available online at: www.hbs.edu/applegate/ cases/research.

Chartjunk or goldgraph? Effects of persenataion objectives and content desirability on information presentation: effects of presentation objectives and content desirability on information presentation

Abstract: Most research on information presentation is based on the rational approach to display design. This approach assumes that the quality of displays is determined by their relative efficacy to provide the relevant information for the viewer, as assessed through variables such as response latency, accuracy, or decision quality. However, presentations often are intended to convince viewers and create desired impressions. These considerations may lead to the choice of displays that differ from those prescribed by the rational approach. Three experiments addressed the degree to which the presenter's objectives and the desirability of the presented information affect presenters' preferences for display formats. Presenters exhibited different preferences when they tried to create a favorable impression compared to when they tried to reach optimal decisions or provide information for optimal decision making by others. There was an increased use of depth in graphic displays when impressions were crucial, and this tendency was particularly strong when the presented information was undesirable for the presenter. The results demonstrate the importance of understanding the social circumstances of information presentation when evaluating the adequacy of display formats.

“Seeding the line”: understanding the transition from IT to non-IT careers

Abstract: As organizations face increased competitive pressures and technological changes, their attention is focusing on how to attain strategic benefits from information technology investments, including investments in people. From a human resources perspective, one debate centers on how to attract and retain information technology (IT) professionals. Somewhat paradoxically, it is suggested that to retain IT professionals, organizations must provide both technical and business oriented career opportunities.This paper presents a case study of one organization, The Mutual Group, in which more than 70 IT professionals permanently moved into non-IT, business unit jobs during the 1980's and early 1990's. Using interviews and surveys of 51 former IT professionals, this research investigated the characteristics of the individual, the organization, the first non-IT job, and the transition period.We conclude from our findings that IT professionals who moved to non-IT jobs in the line made the transition without the benefit of deliberate preparation, formal transition programs, or safety nets to reduce the risk. Some conditions existed at The Mutual Group that may have assisted them, including: good relations between IT and the line, friends and mentors in line units, and a willingness to take risks in pursuit of new challenges.One contribution of this paper is that is begins to fill a gap in the career mobility literature, based on individuals and their stories of change. It also attempts to understand the role of context in one organization that is a recognized leader in the use of IT for competitive advantage.

The untapped potential of IT chargeback

Abstract: The received wisdom on IT chargeback is that a chargeback system with certain key characteristics, such as usage-based charges, stable rates, understandable bills, and so forth, will help firms make effective decisions on IT investment and use. Eccles' model of transfer pricing provides a theoretical framework for this claim, and it also explains why chargeback systems can raise issues of fairness or create conflict between IT and its clients, as the IT literature has pointed out. Applying Eccles' model, this paper reports on a study of 10 organizations' IT chargeback systems and their impacts on business managers' economic decisions and on evaluations of IT and business unit performance. Respondents in just four of the 10 firms reported that chargeback had significantly influenced IT investment decisions. In addition, the business unit respondents at those same four firms offered more positive assessments of IT than their counterparts at other sites. These differences in chargeback-related outcomes could not be accounted for by looking at differences in the chargeback characteristics that are most commonly described in the IT literature. What was different in these four firms was that chargeback was being used to foster communication between IT and the business units. This communication was generating a rich shared understanding for both parties of the costs and benefits of alternative IT investments and service offerings. The literature on partnership argues that complex IT investment decisions demand a strong IT-business partnership. The analysis suggests that IT units in just four of the 10 firms were tapping into the potential of chargeback to facilitate the development of a partnership with their business unit counterparts.