Showing papers in "Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B-process Metallurgy and Materials Processing Science in 2014"

Effect of Fluid Convection on Dendrite Arm Spacing in Laser Deposition

Abstract: Ni superalloys are widely used for hot section components in jet engines because they are very resistant to corrosion and maintain reasonably high strength at elevated temperature. However, the repair cost of the parts is high, partly due to the complexities of process variable optimization and control in laser cladding. In particular, optimizing the process parameters by experiments is time-consuming and costly. The microstructure and properties of the metal deposit are significantly influenced by values temperature gradient G and solidification rate R at the weld pool solidification boundary. Optimized values can help to reduce defects and improve properties of laser deposits. Optimization is hindered by the fact that the clad melt pool is hot and small, making in situ measurement of such solidification conditions difficult. Numerical simulation of the laser deposition process is a possible alternative to experimental measurement to obtain values of clad solidification parameters. In this investigation, G and R values at the weld pool solidification boundary were obtained from a three dimensional numerical simulation of laser deposition process and melt pool. The primary dendrite arm spacing and cooling rate of the deposited material were then correlated to these solidification conditions.

Role of B2O3 on the Viscosity and Structure in the CaO-Al2O3-Na2O-Based System

Abstract: The effect of B2O3 on the viscosity and structure in the calcium-aluminate melt flux system containing Na2O was studied. An increase in the B2O3 content at fixed CaO/Al2O3 ratio lowered the viscosity. Higher CaO/Al2O3 ratio at fixed B2O3 content also decreased the viscosity. The alumino-borate structures were confirmed through Fourier transformed infrared (FTIR) and Raman spectroscopy and consisted of [AlO4]-tetrahedral structural units, [BO3]-triangular structural units, and [BO4]-tetrahedral structural units, which could be correlated to the viscosity. At fixed CaO/Al2O3 ratio, B2O3 additions decreased the [AlO4]-tetrahedral structural units and transformed the 3-D network structures such as pentaborate and tetraborate into 2-D network structures of boroxol and boroxyl rings by breaking the bridged oxygen atoms (O0) to produce non-bridged oxygen atoms (O−) leading to a decrease in the molten flux viscosity. At fixed B2O3 contents and higher CaO/Al2O3 ratio, 3-D complex network structures become 3-D simple and 2-D isolated network structures, resulting in lower viscosities. The apparent activation energy for viscous flow varied from 132 to 249 kJ/mol according to the composition of B2O3 and CaO/Al2O3 ratio.

Transport and Entrapment of Particles in Steel Continuous Casting

Abstract: A particle-capture model based on local force balances has been developed, implemented into computational models of turbulent fluid flow and particle transport, and applied to simulate the entrapment of slag inclusions and bubbles during the continuous casting of steel slabs. Turbulent flow of molten steel is computed in the nozzle and mold using transient computational fluid flow models, both with and without the effects of argon gas injection. Next, the transport and capture of many particles are simulated using a Lagrangian approach. Particles touching the dendritic interface may be pushed away, dragged away by the transverse flow, or captured into the solidifying shell according to the results of a local balance of ten different forces. This criterion was validated by reproducing experimental results in two different systems. The implications of this criterion are discussed quantitatively. Finally, the fluid flow/particle transport model results and capture criterion are applied together to predict the entrapment distributions of different sized particles in a typical slab caster. More large particles are safely removed than small ones, but the entrapment rate into the solidifying shell as defects is still very high.

Investigation of the Viscosity and Structural Properties of CaO-SiO2-TiO2 Slags

Abstract: The viscosity of CaO-SiO2-TiO2 slags was measured via the rotating cylinder method to reveal the effect of TiO2 on viscous flow of the slags. Furthermore, the structure of the ternary slags and the role of Ti4+ were investigated by Fourier transform infrared and Raman spectroscopy techniques. The results are beneficial for a better understanding of the behaviors of Ti-bearing silicate slags. The TiO2 additions lowered the viscosity and apparent activation energy of the slags. However, the degree of polymerization (DOP) of silicate network was found to be enhanced with increasing the TiO2 content, which is suggested by the increase in mole fraction of Q3 ([SiO4]-tetrahedra with three bridging oxygens) and the decrease in Q0. The Eq. [2] Q2 ↔ Q1 + Q3 was appropriate to express the relationship of different Qn species. The introduction of Ti4+ into the silicate network as network formers increased the DOP but weakened the strength of slag structure at the same time. Besides, a large proportion of Ti4+ exists in the slag in the form of \( TiO_{4}^{4 - } \) monomers, resulting in a decrease of viscosity with increasing TiO2 content.

Lattice Structures Manufactured by SLM: On the Effect of Geometrical Dimensions on Microstructure Evolution During Processing

Abstract: Employing selective laser melting direct microstructure manipulation is feasible through adjustment of thermal gradients and solidification velocity. Currently, the exposure strategy and laser energy have to be adapted in order to meet a processing window suited for introducing highly anisotropic microstructures. As selective laser melting allows for production of filigree complex structures, the impact of geometry on the microstructure evolution is investigated in the current study and it is shown that miniaturization of structures as well leads to the evolution of anisotropic microstructure.

Study on the Macrosegregation Behavior for the Bloom Continuous Casting: Model Development and Validation

Abstract: With the aid of a coupling electromagnetic-thermal-solute transportation model validated by the industrial investigation, a three-dimensional (3-D) plus two-dimensional (2-D) hybrid modeling method has been presented for the exploration of the macrosegregation and macroscale transport phenomena in the bloom continuous casting (CC) processes of high-carbon GCr15-bearing steel. The evolution and characteristics of solute distribution and its influence on the porosity formation in the strand during CC process have been revealed. Solute segregation degree changes from a positive to a negative value with distance from strand surface in the region of initial solidification shell within thickness of 25 mm, which can be attributed to the circulation flow ahead the solidification front and the floatation of solute-rich molten steel at the upper part of the mold. The discontinuous, nonfrozen band induced by the zigzag solute distribution is proven to be the main reason that leads to the porosity formation in the final solidification stage of the CC strand. As the solidification proceeds, the segregation degree of C at the strand center is increased from 1.0 to 1.2, while the melt liquidus temperature is reduced from 1726 K (1453 °C) to 1706.91 K (1433.91 °C) during the CC process. Moreover, with the action of gravity and thermosolutal convection, a negative segregation region in the concave shape and an irregular positive segregation zone are produced in the fixed and loosened side of shell, respectively.

Transient Asymmetric Flow and Bubble Transport Inside a Slab Continuous-Casting Mold

Abstract: A one third scale water model experiment was conducted to observe the asymmetric flow and vortexing flow inside a slab continuous-casting mold. Dye-injection experiment was used to show the evolution of the transient flow pattern in the liquid pool without and with gas injection. The spread of the dye was not symmetric about the central plane. The flow pattern inside the mold was not stationary. The black sesames were injected into water to visualize the vortexing flow pattern on the top surface. The changes of shape and location of single vortex and two vortices with time had been observed during experiments. Plant ultrasonic testing (UT) of slabs was used to analyze the slab defects distribution, which indicated that the defects are intermittent and asymmetric. A mathematical model has been developed to analyze the time-dependent flow using the realistic geometries, which includes the submerged entry nozzle (SEN), actual mold, and part of the secondary cooling zone. The transient turbulent flow of molten steel inside the mold has been simulated using the large eddy simulation computational approach. Simulation results agree acceptably well with the water model experimentally observed and plant UT results. The oscillating motions of jet and the turbulence naturally promote the asymmetric flow even without the effects of slide gate nozzle or the existence of clogs inside the SEN. The periodic behavior of transient fluid flow in the mold is identified and characterized. The vortexing flow is resulted from asymmetric flow in the liquid pool. The vortices are located at the low-velocity side adjacent to the SEN, and the positions and sizes are different. Finally, the model is applied to investigate the influence of bubble size and casting speed on the time-dependent bubble distribution and removal fraction from the top surface inside the mold.

Effects of Li 2 O and Na 2 O on the Crystallization Behavior of Lime-Alumina-Based Mold Flux for Casting High-Al Steels

Abstract: With the development of advanced high strength steel (AHSS), a large amount of aluminum was added into steels. The reaction between aluminum in the molten steel and silica based mold flux in the continuous-casting process would tend to cause a series of problems and influence the quality of slabs. To solve the above problems caused by the slag–steel reaction, nonreactive lime-alumina-based mold flux system has been proposed. In this article, the effect of Li2O and Na2O on the crystallization behavior of the lime-alumina-silica-based mold flux has been studied by using the single hot thermocouple technology (SHTT) and double hot thermocouple technology (DHTT). The results indicated that Li2O and Na2O in the above mold flux system play different roles as they behaved in traditional lime-silica based mold flux, which would tend to inhibit general mold flux crystallization by lowering the initial crystallization temperature and increasing incubation time, especially in the high-temperature region. However, when their content exceeds a critical value, the crystallization process of mold fluxes in low temperature zone would be greatly accelerated by the new phase formation of LiAlO2 and Na x Al y Si z O4 crystals, respectively. The crystalline phases precipitated in all samples during the experiments are discussed in the article.

Crystallization Characteristics of CaO-Al2O3-Based Mold Flux and Their Effects on In-Mold Performance during High-Aluminum TRIP Steels Continuous Casting

Abstract: Crystallization behaviors of the newly developed lime-alumina-based mold fluxes for high-aluminum transformation induced plasticity (TRIP) steels casting were experimentally studied, and compared with those of lime-silica-based mold fluxes. The effects of mold flux crystallization characteristics on heat transfer and lubrication performance in casting high-Al TRIP steels were also evaluated. The results show that the crystallization temperatures of lime-alumina-based mold fluxes are much lower than those of lime-silica-based mold fluxes. Increasing B2O3 addition suppresses the crystallization of lime-alumina-based mold fluxes, while Na2O exhibits an opposite effect. In continuous cooling of lime-alumina-based mold fluxes with high B2O3 contents and a CaO/Al2O3 ratio of 3.3, faceted cuspidine precipitates first, followed by needle-like CaO·B2O3 or 9CaO·3B2O3·CaF2. In lime-alumina-based mold flux with low B2O3 content (5.4 mass pct) and a CaO/Al2O3 ratio of 1.2, the formation of fine CaF2 takes place first, followed by blocky interconnected CaO·2Al2O3 as the dominant crystalline phase, and rod-like 2CaO·B2O3 precipitates at lower temperature during continuous cooling of the mold flux. In B2O3-free mold flux, blocky interconnected 3CaO·Al2O3 precipitates after CaF2 and 3CaO·2SiO2 formation, and takes up almost the whole crystalline fraction. The casting trials show that the mold heat transfer rate significantly decreases near the meniscus during the continuous casting using lime-alumina-mold fluxes with higher crystallinity, which brings a great reduction of surface depressions on cast slabs. However, excessive crystallinity of mold flux causes poor lubrication between mold and solidifying steel shell, which induces various defects such as drag marks on cast slab. Among the studied mold fluxes, lime-alumina-based mold fluxes with higher B2O3 contents and a CaO/Al2O3 ratio of 3.3 show comparatively improved performance.

A Structurally Based Viscosity Model for Oxide Melts

Abstract: A structurally based viscosity model is proposed to represent the viscosity of oxide melts as functions of both temperature and composition; The oxide melts cover the following constituents: Li2O, Na2O, K2O, MgO, CaO, SrO, BaO, FeO, MnO, Al2O3, SiO2, CaF2, TiO2, Fe2O3, and P2O5. The model describes the slag structure in terms of the various forms of oxygen ions which are classified according to the metal cations they bond with. Approximate methods for calculating the concentrations of these oxygen ions are proposed and are then used to describe the effect of melt structure on viscosity. The model provides a good description of the variations in viscosity with composition and temperature. The measured viscosities were compared with values calculated with the model, and the current model was found to provide reliable estimates of viscosities of slags used in various industrial processes (e.g., blast furnace, basic oxygen steelmaking, ladle refining, continuous casting of steel, coal gasification, and electroslag remelting).

Detection of Non-metallic Inclusions in Steel Continuous Casting Billets

Abstract: This work applied automated particle analysis to study non-metallic inclusions in steel. Compared with traditional methods, the approach has the advantage of capturing the morphology, measuring the size, recording the original positions, and identifying the composition of inclusions on a selected area in a short time. The morphology and composition of typical inclusions were analyzed using partial acid extraction and discussed through thermodynamic calculation. Steel samples were collected from the entire cross section of billets cast during times of steady state and ladle change. The spatial distribution of inclusions agreed well with the measurement of the total oxygen. The spatial distribution of inclusions was plotted to represent the entrapment positions of inclusions on the casting strand and their concentration on the cross section of the billet. Also, regarding the different size and type of inclusions, the spatial distribution of classified inclusions was explored such as the distribution of sulfide, oxide, and high sodium and potassium content inclusions. The sufficient information could be used to identify the source of inclusions and guide the steel refining process.

Characterization of the Influence of Tool Pin Profile on Microstructural and Mechanical Properties of Friction Stir Welding

Abstract: In this study, the effect of tool pin profile on mechanical properties, microstructural, material flow, thermal and strain distributions of friction stir welding of AA5083 was investigated. Two different tools with cylindrical and square pin profiles were employed to produce the welds. A numerical model is developed for investigating the effect of tool pin profiles on material flow, thermal and strain distributions based on thermo-mechanically coupled rigid-viscoplastic 3D FEM. Then, optical microscopy was employed to characterize the microstructures features of the weld. Finally, tensile test was carried out to characterize the mechanical properties of the weld. Obtained results showed that square pin profile produced finer grain structure and higher ultimate strength relative to cylindrical one. These results may be related to higher eccentricity, larger stirred zone, and higher temperature in the weld zone of the square pin profile.

Effect of Slag on Inclusions During Electroslag Remelting Process of Die Steel

Abstract: Many factors influence the non-metallic inclusions in electroslag steel including furnace atmosphere and inclusions’ content in the consumable electrode, slag amount and its composition, power input, melting rate, filling ratio, and so on. Fluoride containing slag, which influences the non-metallic inclusions to a great extent, has been widely used for the electroslag remelting process. The current paper focuses on the effect of fluoride containing slag on the inclusions in electroslag ingots based on the interaction of the slag-metal interface and electroslag remelting process. In this work, die steel of CR-5A and several slags have been employed for investigating the effect of slag on inclusions in an electrical resistance furnace under argon atmosphere in order to eliminate the effect of ambient oxygen. Specimens were taken at different times for analyzing the content, dimensions, and type of non-metallic inclusions. Results of quantitative metallographic analysis indicate that a multi-component slag has better capacity for controlling the amount of inclusions; especially protective gas atmosphere has also been adopted. The findings of inclusions in electroslag steel by SEM–EDS analysis reveal that most non-metallic inclusions in electroslag steel are MgO-Al2O3 inclusions for multi-component slags, but it is Al2O3 inclusions when remelting using conventional 70 wt pct CaF2-30 wt pct Al2O3 slag. The maximal inclusions’ size using multi-component slags is less than that using conventional binary slag. Small filling ratio as well as protective gas atmosphere is favorable for controlling the non-metallic inclusions in electroslag steel. All the results obtained will be compared to the original state inclusions in steel, which contribute to choice of slag for electroslag remelting.

Numerical Simulation of Desulfurization Behavior in Gas-Stirred Systems Based on Computation Fluid Dynamics–Simultaneous Reaction Model (CFD–SRM) Coupled Model

Abstract: A computation fluid dynamics–simultaneous reaction model (CFD–SRM) coupled model has been proposed to describe the desulfurization behavior in a gas-stirred ladle. For the desulfurization thermodynamics, different models were investigated to determine sulfide capacity and oxygen activity. For the desulfurization kinetic, the effect of bubbly plume flow, as well as oxygen absorption and oxidation reactions in slag eyes are considered. The thermodynamic and kinetic modification coefficients are proposed to fit the measured data, respectively. Finally, the effects of slag basicity and gas flow rate on the desulfurization efficiency are investigated. The results show that as the interfacial reactions (Al2O3)-(FeO)-(SiO2)-(MnO)-[S]-[O] simultaneous kinetic equilibrium is adopted to determine the oxygen activity, and the Young’s model with the modification coefficient R th of 1.5 is adopted to determine slag sulfide capacity, the predicted sulfur distribution ratio LS agrees well with the measured data. With an increase of the gas blowing time, the predicted desulfurization rate gradually decreased, and when the modification parameter R k is 0.8, the predicted sulfur content changing with time in ladle agrees well with the measured data. If the oxygen absorption and oxidation reactions in slag eyes are not considered in this model, then the sulfur removal rate in the ladle would be overestimated, and this trend would become more obvious with an increase of the gas flow rate and decrease of the slag layer height. With the slag basicity increasing, the total desulfurization ratio increases; however, the total desulfurization ratio changes weakly as the slag basicity exceeds 7. With the increase of the gas flow rate, the desulfurization ratio first increases and then decreases. When the gas flow rate is 200 NL/min, the desulfurization ratio reaches a maximum value in an 80-ton gas-stirred ladle.

Fundamentals of Silico-Ferrite of Calcium and Aluminum (SFCA) and SFCA-I Iron Ore Sinter Bonding Phase Formation: Effects of CaO:SiO 2 Ratio

Abstract: Effects of basicity, B (CaO:SiO2 ratio) on the thermal range, concentration, and formation mechanisms of silico-ferrite of calcium and aluminum (SFCA) and SFCA-I iron ore sinter bonding phases have been investigated using an in situ synchrotron X-ray diffraction-based methodology with subsequent Rietveld refinement-based quantitative phase analysis SFCA and SFCA-I phases are the key bonding materials in iron ore sinter, and improved understanding of the effects of processing parameters such as basicity on their formation and decomposition may assist in improving efficiency of industrial iron ore sintering operations Increasing basicity significantly increased the thermal range of SFCA-I, from 1363 K to 1533 K (1090 °C to 1260 °C) for a mixture with B = 248, to ~1339 K to 1535 K (1066 °C to 1262 °C) for a mixture with B = 396, and to ~1323 K to 1593 K (1050 °C to 1320 °C) at B = 494 Increasing basicity also increased the amount of SFCA-I formed, from 18 wt pct for the mixture with B = 248 to 25 wt pct for the B = 494 mixture Higher basicity of the starting sinter mixture will, therefore, increase the amount of SFCA-I, considered to be more desirable of the two phases Basicity did not appear to significantly influence the formation mechanism of SFCA-I It did, however, affect the formation mechanism of SFCA, with the decomposition of SFCA-I coinciding with the formation of a significant amount of additional SFCA in the B = 248 and 396 mixtures but only a minor amount in the highest basicity mixture In situ neutron diffraction enabled characterization of the behavior of magnetite after melting of SFCA produced a magnetite plus melt phase assemblage

Crystallization Behaviors of CaO-SiO2-Al2O3-Na2O-CaF2-(Li2O-B2O3) Mold Fluxes

Abstract: The effects of basicity (CaO/SiO2), B2O3, and Li2O addition on the crystallization behaviors of lime-silica-based mold fluxes have been investigated by non-isothermal differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), field emission scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and single hot thermocouple technique. It was found that the crystallization temperature of cuspidine increased with increasing the basicity of mold fluxes. The crystallization of wollastonite was suppressed with increasing the mold flux basicity due to the enhancement of cuspidine crystallization. The addition of B2O3 suppresses the crystallization of mold flux. The crystallization temperature of mold flux decreases with Li2O addition. The size of cuspidine increases, while the number of cuspidine decreases with increasing mold flux basicity. The morphology of cuspidine in mold fluxes with lower basicity is largely dendritic. The dendritic cuspidine in mold fluxes is composed of many fine cuspidine crystals. On the contrary, in mold fluxes with higher basicity, the cuspidine crystals are larger in size with mainly faceted morphology. The crystalline phase evolution was also calculated using a thermodynamic database, and compared with the experimental results determined by DSC and XRD. The results of thermodynamic calculation of crystalline phase formation are in accordance with the results determined by DSC and XRD.

Effect of Slag Composition on the Concentration of Al2O3 in the Inclusions in Si-Mn-killed Steel

Abstract: The thermodynamic equilibria between CaO-Al2O3-SiO2-CaF2-MgO(-MnO) slag and Fe-1.5 mass pct Mn-0.5 mass pct Si-0.5 mass pct Cr melt was investigated at 1873 K (1600 °C) in order to understand the effect of slag composition on the concentration of Al2O3 in the inclusions in Si-Mn-killed steels. The composition of the inclusions were mainly equal to (mol pct MnO)/(mol pct SiO2) = 0.8(±0.06) with Al2O3 content that was increased from about 10 to 40 mol pct by increasing the basicity of slag (CaO/SiO2 ratio) from about 0.7 to 2.1. The concentration ratio of the inclusion components, $$ {{X_{{{\text{Al}}_{2} {\text{O}}_{3} }} \cdot X_{\text{MnO}} } \mathord{\left/ {\vphantom {{X_{{{\text{Al}}_{2} {\text{O}}_{3} }} \cdot X_{\text{MnO}} } {X_{{{\text{SiO}}_{2} }} }}} \right. \kern-0pt} {X_{{{\text{SiO}}_{2} }} }} $$ , and the activity ratio of the steel components, $$ {{a_{\text{Al}}^{2} \cdot a_{\text{Mn}} \cdot a_{\text{O}}^{2} } \mathord{\left/ {\vphantom {{a_{\text{Al}}^{2} \cdot a_{\text{Mn}} \cdot a_{\text{O}}^{2} } {a_{\text{Si}} }}} \right. \kern-0pt} {a_{\text{Si}} }} $$ , showed a good linear relationship on a logarithmic scale, indicating that the activity coefficient ratio of the inclusion components, $$ {{\gamma_{{{\text{SiO}}_{2} }}^{i} } \mathord{\left/ {\vphantom {{\gamma_{{{\text{SiO}}_{2} }}^{i} } {\left( {\gamma_{{{\text{Al}}_{2} {\text{O}}_{3} }}^{i} \cdot \gamma_{\text{MnO}}^{i} } \right)}}} \right. \kern-0pt} {\left( {\gamma_{{{\text{Al}}_{2} {\text{O}}_{3} }}^{i} \cdot \gamma_{\text{MnO}}^{i} } \right)}} $$ , was not significantly changed. From the slag-steel-inclusion multiphase equilibria, the concentration of Al2O3 in the inclusions was expressed as a linear function of the activity ratio of the slag components, $$ {{a_{{{\text{Al}}_{2} {\text{O}}_{3} }}^{s} \cdot a_{\text{MnO}}^{s} } \mathord{\left/ {\vphantom {{a_{{{\text{Al}}_{2} {\text{O}}_{3} }}^{s} \cdot a_{\text{MnO}}^{s} } {a_{{{\text{SiO}}_{2} }}^{s} }}} \right. \kern-0pt} {a_{{{\text{SiO}}_{2} }}^{s} }} $$ on a logarithmic scale. Consequently, a compositional window of the slag for obtaining inclusions with a low liquidus temperature in the Si-Mn-killed steel treated in an alumina ladle is recommended.

Removal of Boron and Phosphorus from Silicon Using CaO-SiO2-Na2O-Al2O3 Flux

Abstract: A combination of solvent refining and flux treatment was employed to remove boron and phosphorus from crude silicon to acceptable levels for solar applications Metallurgical grade silicon (MG-Si) was alloyed with pure copper, and the alloy was subjected to refining by liquid CaO-SiO2-Na2O-Al2O3 slags at 1773 K (1500 °C) The distribution of B and P between the slags and the alloy was examined under a range of slag compositions, varying in CaO:SiO2 and SiO2:Al2O3 ratios and the amount of Na2O The results showed that both basicity and oxygen potential have a strong influence on the distributions of B and P With silica affecting both parameters in these slags, a critical $$ P_{{{\text{O}}_{2} }} $$ could be identified that yields the highest impurity pick-up The addition of Na2O to the slag system was found to increase the distributions of boron and phosphorus A thermodynamic evaluation of the system showed that alloying copper with MG-Si leads to substantial increase of boron distribution coefficient The highest boron and phosphorus distribution coefficients are 47 and 11, respectively Using these optimum slags to reduce boron and phosphorus in MG-Si to solar grade level, a slag mass about 03 times and 17 times mass of alloy would be required, respectively

Large Eddy Simulations of Double-Ruler Electromagnetic Field Effect on Transient Flow During Continuous Casting

Abstract: Transient flow during nominally steady conditions is responsible for many intermittent defects during the continuous casting of steel The double-ruler electromagnetic field configuration, or “FC-Mold EMBr,” is popular in commercial slab casting as it provides independent control of the applied static field near the jet and free surface regions of the mold In the current study, transient flow in a typical commercial caster is simulated in the absence and in the presence of a double-ruler magnetic field, with rulers of equal strengths Large eddy simulations with the in-house code CU-FLOW resolve the important transient behavior, using grids of over five million cells with a fast parallel solver In the absence of a magnetic field, a double-roll pattern is observed, with transient unbalanced behavior, high surface velocities (~05 m/s), surface vortex formation, and very large surface-level fluctuations (~±12 mm) Applying the magnetic field suppresses the unbalanced behavior, producing a more complex mold flow pattern, but with much lower surface velocities (~01 m/s), and a flat surface level with small level fluctuations (<±1 mm) Nail board measurements taken at this commercial caster, in the absence of the field, matched reasonably well with the calculated results, both quantitatively and qualitatively

A Microstructure Evolution Model for the Processing of Single-Crystal Alloy CMSX-4 Through Scanning Laser Epitaxy for Turbine Engine Hot-Section Component Repair (Part II)

Abstract: Part I [Metall. Mater. Trans. B, 2014, DOI: 10.1007/s11663-014-0117-9 ] presented a comprehensive thermal, fluid flow, and solidification model that can predict the temperature distribution and flow characteristics for the processing of CMSX-4 alloy powder through scanning laser epitaxy (SLE). SLE is an additive manufacturing technology aimed at the creation of equiaxed, directionally solidified and single-crystal (SX) deposits of nickel-based superalloys using a fast-scanning laser beam. Part II here further explores the Marangoni convection-based model to predict the solidification microstructure as a function of the conditions at the trailing edge of the melt pool formed during the SLE process. Empirical values for several microstructural characteristics such as the primary dendrite arm spacing (PDAS), the columnar-to-equiaxed transition (CET) criterion and the oriented-to-misoriented transition (OMT) criterion are obtained. Optical microscopy provides visual information on the various microstructural characteristics of the deposited material such as melt depth, CET location, OMT location, PDAS, etc. A quantitative and consistent investigation of this complex set of characteristics is both challenging and unprecedented. A customized image-analysis technique based on active contouring is developed to automatically extract these data from experimental micrographs. Quantitative metallography verifies that even for the raster scan pattern in SLE and the corresponding line heat source assumption, the PDAS follows the growth relation w ~G −0.5 V −0.25 (w = PDAS, G = temperature gradient and V = solidification velocity) developed for marginal stability under constrained growth. Models for the CET and OMT are experimentally validated, thereby providing powerful predictive capabilities for controlling the microstructure of SX alloys processed through SLE.

Magnetohydrodynamic Modeling and Experimental Validation of Convection Inside Electromagnetically Levitated Co-Cu Droplets

Abstract: A magnetohydrodynamic model of internal convection of a molten Co-Cu droplet processed by the ground-based electromagnetic levitation (EML) was developed. For the calculation of the electromagnetic field generated by the copper coils, the simplified Maxwell’s equations were solved. The calculated Lorentz force per volume was used as a momentum source in the Navier–Stokes equations, which were solved by using a commercial computational fluid dynamics package. The RNG k-e model was adopted for the prediction of turbulent flow. For the validation of the developed model, a Co16Cu84 sample was tested using the EML facility in the German Aerospace Center, Cologne, Germany. The sample was subjected to a full melt cycle, during which the surface of the sample was captured by a high-speed camera. With a sufficient undercooling, the liquid phase separation occurred and the Co-rich liquid phase particles could be observed as they were floating on the surface along streamlines. The convection velocity was estimated by the combination of the displacement of the Co-rich particles and the temporal resolution of the high-speed camera. Both the numerical and experimental results showed an excellent agreement in the convection velocity on the surface.

A General Coupled Mathematical Model of Electromagnetic Phenomena, Two-Phase Flow, and Heat Transfer in Electroslag Remelting Process Including Conducting in the Mold

Abstract: A transient three-dimensional finite-volume mathematical model has been developed to investigate the coupled physical fields in the electroslag remelting (ESR) process. Through equations solved by the electrical potential method, the electric current, electromagnetic force (EMF), and Joule heating fields are demonstrated. The mold is assumed to be conductive rather than insulated. The volume of fluid approach is implemented for the two-phase flow. Moreover, the EMF and Joule heating, which are the source terms of the momentum and energy sources, are recalculated at each iteration as a function of the phase distribution. The solidification is modeled by an enthalpy-porosity formulation, in which the mushy zone is treated as a porous medium with porosity equal to the liquid fraction. An innovative marking method of the metal pool profile is proposed in the experiment. The effect of the applied current on the ESR process is understood by the model. Good agreement is obtained between the experiment and calculation. The electric current flows to the mold lateral wall especially in the slag layer. A large amount of Joule heating around the metal droplet varies as it falls. The hottest region appears under the outer radius of the electrode tip, close to the slag/metal interface instead of the electrode tip. The metal pool becomes deeper with more power. The maximal temperature increases from 1951 K to 2015 K (1678 °C to 1742 °C), and the maximum metal pool depth increases from 34.0 to 59.5 mm with the applied current ranging from 1000 to 2000 A.

Innovative Methodology to Enrich Britholite (Ca3Ce2[(Si,P)O4]3F) Phase from Rare-Earth-Rich Slag by Super Gravity

Abstract: A new approach to enriching britholite phase from the rare-earth-rich slag by super gravity was investigated. The Bayan Obo iron ore, which was used as raw material, was reduced and melting separated to produce iron nugget and rare-earth-rich slag. Subsequently, the slag was heat-treated and enriched in the super gravity filed. The volume fraction and equivalent diameter of britholite phase were measured by scanning electron microscope (SEM) and image analyzer, whereas the mineral composition and chemical component were characterized by X-ray diffraction and X-ray fluorescence. The results indicated that the samples obtained by the gravity coefficient G ≥ 500, t ≥ 15 minutes, and T ≥1423 K (1150 °C) show significant layers and britholite phase present gradient size distribution in the sample along the super gravity. The layered sample was central cut and characterized by SEM, and it is difficult to find any britholite particles in the upper area of the sample. The britholite phase gathers at the middle and bottom areas of the sample. The mechanism of moving speed of britholite particles in super gravity field was discussed, and the conclusion indicates that the moving speed of britholite particles is proportional to the square of the britholite particle size. As a result, large britholite particles move farther than the small ones and gather at the bottom of the sample, whereas small britholite particles accumulate in the middle of the sample. Under the hypothesis that rare earth (RE) exists in the slag in terms of RE2O3, with the gravity coefficient G = 500, t = 15 minutes, and T = 1423 K (1150 °C), the mass fraction of RE2O3 in the concentrate is up to 23.29 pct whereas that of the tailing is just 5.57 pct. Considering that the mass fraction of RE2O3 is 12.01 pct in the parallel sample, the recovery ratio of RE in the concentrate is up to 71.19 pct by centrifugal enrichment.

Transient Thermo-fluid Model of Meniscus Behavior and Slag Consumption in Steel Continuous Casting

Abstract: The behavior of the slag layer between the oscillating mold wall, the slag rim, the slag/liquid steel interface, and the solidifying steel shell, is of immense importance for the surface quality of continuous-cast steel. A computational model of the meniscus region has been developed, that includes transient heat transfer, multi-phase fluid flow, solidification of the slag, and movement of the mold during an oscillation cycle. First, the model is applied to a lab experiment done with a “mold simulator” to verify the transient temperature-field predictions. Next, the model is verified by matching with available literature and plant measurements of slag consumption. A reasonable agreement has been observed for both temperature and flow-field. The predictions show that transient temperature behavior depends on the location of the thermocouple during the oscillation relative to the meniscus. During an oscillation cycle, heat transfer variations in a laboratory frame of reference are more severe than experienced by the moving mold thermocouples, and the local heat transfer rate is increased greatly when steel overflows the meniscus. Finally, the model is applied to conduct a parametric study on the effect of casting speed, stroke, frequency, and modification ratio on slag consumption. Slag consumption per unit area increases with increase of stroke and modification ratio, and decreases with increase of casting speed while the relation with frequency is not straightforward. The match between model predictions and literature trends suggests that this methodology can be used for further investigations.

Characterization of In-Situ Alloyed and Additively Manufactured Titanium Aluminides

Abstract: Titanium aluminide components were fabricated using in-situ alloying and layer additive manufacturing based on the gas tungsten arc welding process combined with separate wire feeding of titanium and aluminum elements. The new fabrication process promises significant time and cost saving in comparison to traditional methods. In the present study, issues such as processing parameters, microstructure, and properties are discussed. The results presented here demonstrate the potential to produce full density titanium aluminide components directly using the new technique.

Modeling of Multiscale and Multiphase Phenomena in Materials Processing

Abstract: In order to demonstrate how CFD can help scientists and engineers to better understand the fundamentals of engineering processes, a number of examples are shown and discussed. The paper covers (i) special aspects of continuous casting of steel including turbulence, motion and entrapment of non-metallic inclusions, and impact of soft reduction; (ii) multiple flow phenomena and multiscale aspects during casting of large ingots including flow-induced columnar-to-equiaxed transition and 3D formation of channel segregation; (iii) multiphase magneto-hydrodynamics during electro-slag remelting; and (iv) melt flow and solidification of thin but large centrifugal castings.

Formation and Thermodynamics of Mg-Al-Ti-O Complex Inclusions in Mg-Al-Ti-Deoxidized Steel

Abstract: The formation of Mg-Al-Ti-O complex inclusions in steel was investigated by laboratory experiments and thermodynamic calculation. The composition evolutions of Mg-Al-Ti-O inclusions in steel with different contents of [Al], [Mg], and [Ti] were discussed. Mg-Al-Ti-O complex inclusion with high TiO x content was liquid at 1873 K (1600 °C), indicating MgAl2O4 spinel inclusions can be modified to low melting temperature ones by combining TiO x component. The stability diagram of Al-Mg-Ti-O system inclusions in the molten steel at 1873 K (1600 °C) was calculated, considering many kinds of oxide inclusions such as MgO, Al2O3, TiO x , MgTi2O4, MgAl2O4, Al2TiO5, and liquid inclusion. The thermodynamic calculations are in good agreement with experimental results, which can predict the formation of Al-Mg-Ti-O complex inclusions in molten steel with a large concentration range of [Al], [Mg], and [Ti].

A Coupled Thermal, Fluid Flow, and Solidification Model for the Processing of Single-Crystal Alloy CMSX-4 Through Scanning Laser Epitaxy for Turbine Engine Hot-Section Component Repair (Part I)

Abstract: Scanning laser epitaxy (SLE) is a new laser-based additive manufacturing technology under development at the Georgia Institute of Technology. SLE is aimed at the creation of equiaxed, directionally solidified, and single-crystal deposits of nickel-based superalloys through the melting of alloy powders onto superalloy substrates using a fast scanning Nd:YAG laser beam. The fast galvanometer control movement of the laser (0.2 to 2 m/s) and high-resolution raster scanning (20 to 200 µm line spacing) enables superior thermal control over the solidification process and allows the production of porosity-free, crack-free deposits of more than 1000 µm thickness. Here, we present a combined thermal and fluid flow model of the SLE process applied to alloy CMSX-4 with temperature-dependent thermo-physical properties. With the scanning beam described as a moving line source, the instantaneous melt pool assumes a convex hull shape with distinct leading edge and trailing edge characteristics. Temperature gradients at the leading and trailing edges are of order 2 × 105 and 104 K/m, respectively. Detailed flow analysis provides insights on the flow characteristics of the powder incorporating into the melt pool, showing velocities of order 1 × 10–4 m/s. The Marangoni effect drives this velocity from 10 to 15 times higher depending on the operating parameters. Prediction of the solidification microstructure is based on conditions at the trailing edge of the melt pool. Time tracking of solidification history is incorporated into the model to couple the microstructure prediction model to the thermal-fluid flow model, and to predict the probability of the columnar-to-equiaxed transition. Qualitative agreement is obtained between simulation and experimental result.

Effects of Fluorine and BaO on the Crystallization Behavior of Lime-Alumina-Based Mold Flux for Casting High-Al Steels

Abstract: With the development of advanced high-strength steel, the slag/steel reaction problems introduced by the addition of aluminum into steel become a challenge for the continuous casting process An investigation aims to improve the crystallization property of lime–alumina-based mold flux for casting high Al-bearing steels which was carried out through the study of effects of fluorine and BaO on the crystallization behaviors of the mold flux The single/double hot thermocouple technique and SEM, EDS were employed in the study The results indicated that the decrease of fluorine content would promote the crystallization behaviors in the lime–alumina-based system which is different to that in the conventional lime–silica-based system, while BaO substituted for CaO can inhibit the crystallization of the lime–alumina-based mold flux Moreover, the crystallization behavior of mold flux under simulated thermal gradient was in well accordance with TTT results, including the crystallization process and three-layered (liquid, crystalline, glassy) distribution of mold flux

Effect of Na 2 O and B 2 O 3 on the Crystallization Behavior of Low Fluorine Mold Fluxes for Casting Medium Carbon Steels

Abstract: An investigation has been conducted to study the effect of Na2O and B2O3 on the crystallization behavior of low fluorine (F) mold powders for casting medium carbon (MC) steels in this article. The results of this study indicated that B2O3 tends to lower the crystallization temperature and increase crystallization incubation time of the low F powders; however, Na2O plays an opposite role compared with that of B2O3. The crystalline phase of Ca11Si4B2O22 was formed in Sample D2 [F = 3 pct, Na2O = 10 pct, B2O3 = 8 pct (in wt pct)], which exhibited the most similar crystallization behavior to that of cuspidine, such that Sample D2 showed closest crystallization kinetics to that of a conventional high-F mold slag for casting MC steels. The precipitated crystalline phases for all the samples have been analyzed and discussed in the article.