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Showing papers in "Modern Asian Studies in 1979"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, an attempt has been made to delineate the background of the religious support for the Pakistan movement in the Punjab by looking in particular at the connections between the structure of religious leadership and the structural structure of Muslim politics in 20th century Punjab.
Abstract: In this paper an attempt has been made to delineate the background of the religious support for the Pakistan movement in the Punjab by looking in particular at the connections between the structure of religious leadership and the structure of Muslim politics in 20th century Punjab. Only the rough outlines of these connections have been provided, but nevertheless some important patterns have emerged. From the time of the conversion to Islam of much of the western Punjab at the hands of sufi saints, religious leadership in the rural areas was focused on the hereditary sajjada nashins of the shrines of these saints. The position of these hereditary religious leaders was tied closely into the political organization of the rural areas, and this produced a considerable unity of political and economic interests between the religious and the secular leaders of rural society. Such common interests were strengthened by the British, who, in molding a system of rural administration in the Punjab, recognized the sajjada nashins of these shrines as part of a single ruling class of hereditary rural leaders. When the Unionist Party emerged in the 1920s as a party of rural interests led by this class of rural leaders, the sajjada nashins as a group were strongly disposed, therefore, to support it and to oppose the religious attacks on the Unionists which emanated from primarily urban reformist leaders.As a result of a widespread revival of sufi. influence in western Punjab in the post-Mughal era, however, many of the sajjada nashins in twentieth- century Punjab had also developed very strong religious commitments to spreading a deeper awareness of Islam. This revival had spread initially through the Chishti order but was later widened by the development of the Ahl-e-Sunnat-o-Jamaat group of ulama who gave religious legitimacy to the continuing emphasis on the forms of religious influence centered on the shrines. The sajjada nashins who drew on this revival tradition were not satisfied with the secular basis of the political system developed by the Unionists, but due to their structural grounding as sajjada nashins in the rural political milieu, they did not generally give the Unionists active opposition. The Unionist Party was thus able, with tacit religious support in the rural areas, to build a strong system of political authority based on rural control, and this propelled the Party to its sweeping victory in the 1937 elections.With the emergence of the Muslim League, however, which transcended the political question of rural interests versus urban, the revivalist sajjada nashins saw the opportunity to put rural politics on a more solid religious foundation. The concept of Pakistan was seen by them in traditional terms as the establishment of a religious state, ruled by the traditional leaders of rural society but firmly based on the Shariat. In the elections of 1946 the revivalist sajjada nashins provided the vanguard of religious support for Pakistan and played an important role in carrying the Muslim League to triumph over the Unionist Party. The victory was a sweeping religious mandate for Pakistan and marked the most important step on the road to Pakistan's formation.The important role of the sajjada nashins in the Muslim League's election victory was also an important pointer to the nature of the Pakistan state which was to emerge. Structurally, the revivalist sajjada nashins were themselves deeply rooted in rural society and their support for the Muslim League in no way represented a repudiation of the class of landed leaders who had long wielded power in western Punjab under the Unionist banner. The victory for Pakistan represented only, a call for a new religious definition of the old rural order, not for a new alignment of political power such as the reformist ulama had called for. The further definition of this system, however, remained to be developed in the new Muslim state.

70 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The colonial port cities of Asia have recently attracted renewed attention not only from students of European imperial expansion, but also from others concerned with urban growth and change as discussed by the authors, and their ethnic and cultural heterogeneity distinguish them from most indigenous cities in Asia.
Abstract: The colonial port cities of Asia have recently attracted renewed attention not only from students of European imperial expansion, but also from others concerned with urban growth and change. These cities, founded by Europeans or developed by them as central links in worldwide colonial political and economic networks, stood apart from precolonial urban centers. Their foreign origins or control, their coastal locations, their central positions within European colonial systems, their emphasis on commercial rather than ritual activities, and their ethnic and cultural heterogeneity are important features which distinguish them from most indigenous cities in Asia. Many possessed a dual social and spatial structure, furthermore, which contrasted with the more unitary and often ritualized order of the noncolonial centers. Products of a changing political world order, these colonial cities became recognized centers of change in their own societies.

34 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The League of Nations' technical co-operation with the National Government of China was one of the major accomplishments of the League during the dismal second decade of its existence as discussed by the authors, but it figures only marginally in the history of twentieth-century China.
Abstract: When in August 1933 the German Minister to China, Dr Oskar P. Trautmann, reported to Berlin, ‘daβ die Volkerbundsmelodie politisch hier ausgespielt hat’, he had jumped to a conclusion too soon. When two years later the Journal Round Table commented, ‘to-day the League of Nations is no longer a political factor in the Far East’, this assessment was vindicated by evidence of every description. The two years between had witnessed the peak and decline of the League of Nation's ‘technical co-operation’ with the National Government of China. This episode plays its part as one of the major accomplishments of the League during the dismal second decade of its existence. It figures, however, only marginally in the history of twentieth-century China. Western works on modern Chinese history tend to neglect it altogether, and the most comprehensive scholarly treatment of China's foreign relations during the Republican period does not even deem it worth a reference in passing. On the other hand, the one authoritative textbook on modern Chinese economic history published in the People's Republic of China devotes ample space to the denunciation of the League's Chinese enterprise.

28 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In 1975 the British General Medical Council ceased to recognize Indian medical degrees as sufficient qualification for practice as a doctor in Britain, and higher qualifications from Britain awarded after 1976 would not be accepted from candidates for promotion in medical colleges and other public sector jobs.
Abstract: In 1975 the British General Medical Council ceased to recognize Indian medical degrees as sufficient qualification for practice as a doctor in Britain. For several years previously the G.M.C. had refused to grant automatic recognition to the degrees of the new Indian medical colleges, and this had soured relationships between the G.M.C. and its Indian counterpart, the Medical Council of India. In retaliation for the British move, the M.C.I. ceased to recognize British medical degrees, and higher qualifications from Britain awarded after 1976 would not be accepted from candidates for promotion in medical colleges and other public sector jobs. This controversy was not as novel as recent commentators have supposed. Indian medical degrees had been refused recognition once before—in 1930—and the issue of G.M.C. recongnition had been at the heart of a dispute between the Indian medical colleges and the British medical authorities which had raged from the end of the First World War to the eve of the Second.

27 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The English East India Company's Coromandel trade provided a spectacle of steady, if unspectacular, growth from its first inauguration early in the seventeenth century as discussed by the authors, which was not subject to the violent ups and downs, or the extremes of great success and utter failure that characterized the Company's trade in some other regions of India and Southeast Asia.
Abstract: The English East India Company's Coromandel trade provided a spectacle of steady, if unspectacular, growth from its first inauguration early in the seventeenth century. It was not subject to the violent ups and downs, or the extremes of great success and utter failure that characterized the Company's trade in some other regions of India and Southeast Asia. An expanding trade on this coast was matched by an expanding presence. By the end of the century it was well-founded in two substantial Forts (St George and St David) and a number of residencies in important ports of outlet from Vizagapatnam in the north to Cuddalore in the south. By investment and enterprise, by diplomacy and force, English interests and influence on the coast grew and their settlements became nodal points of Indo-British exchange and interaction. The timely demonstration of controlled power, both when faced with threats from the ‘country’ powers of the hinterland and from European rivals on the seafront, helped in the growth of these settlements beyond mere centres of trade. Providing, as they did, not merely trade and investment, but also security of person and property, they were naturally an attraction to many groups in Indian society in the hinterland.

27 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
Onkar Marwah1
TL;DR: In this article, India's military intervention in East Pakistan was an instance of the clear use of force for the achievement of limited political and security objectives, and the eventual settlement indicated a flexibility for action and achievement not ordinarily attributed to Indian capability.
Abstract: India's military intervention in East Pakistan was an instance of the clear use of force for the achievement of limited political and security objectives. Indian policymakers' responses to the events in Pakistan were spread over a specific period of time and their decisions can be viewed in a series of distinct phases. The totality of actions involved diplomatic maneuvering in global, regional, and subcontinental geopolitical contexts. There were, in Indian perceptions, easily identified internal and external dimensions to the situation within East Pakistan such as to create potential threats to the Indian state, its territoriality, self-images, and international status in real and symbolic terms. The eventual settlement indicated a flexibility for action and achievement not ordinarily attributed to Indian capability.

26 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: For instance, the authors states that education and assimilation were key components of Japanese colonial policy in Taiwan: assimilation of the island's native Taiwanese population (native islanders of Chinese ancestry) was an important goal; education was an instrument for attainment of this goal.
Abstract: Education and assimilation were key components of Japanese colonial policy in Taiwan: assimilation of the island's native Taiwanese population (native islanders of Chinese ancestry) was an important goal; education was an instrument for attainment of this goal. When during their fifty years of rule (1895–1945) Taiwan's administrators altered their interpretation or definition of assimilation, they modified educational policies accordingly. From beginning to end of the Japanese period in Taiwan its government intended education for native islanders to be a major tool of its assimilation policy, which although a consistent policy was not a static one.

18 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors pointed out that a truly comparative sociology exists less in the work that scholars actually do than in the ideals they profess, and that the principal obstacle to its growth is neither lack of wit nor lack of words: it is prejudice.
Abstract: I should like to pay my tribute to the memory of Kingsley Martin by calling in question a part of the conventional wisdom of what passes for comparative sociology. I hope I shall not appear unduly contentious in doing so. I should not like to speak badly of comparative sociology. At the same time, it has to be admitted that a truly comparative sociology exists less in the work that scholars actually do than in the ideals they profess. The principal obstacle to its growth is, in my opinion, neither lack of wit nor lack of words: it is prejudice.

16 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Forts remain an impressive feature of India's landscape as discussed by the authors and a thoughtful traveller, seeing the jagged walls high above the road, might well wonder who built them, and when, and what events took place within the gates.
Abstract: ... built on the top of a high and steep mountain, incredibly fortified by nature, and able to contain forty thousand horse: in the middle of it are springs which water the mountain, and make the earth so fruitful in the production of grass, herbs, and corn, that there is no want either of provisions or other necessaries: it is also planted round with very fine brass guns . . . EVEN without this wonderful sixteenth-century hyperbole, forts remain an impressive feature of India's landscape. A thoughtful traveller, seeing the jagged walls high above the road, might well wonder who built them, and when, and what events took place within the gates. Scholarly writing on the subject will disappoint him. Toy, in his seminal book, noted that 'this writer has been struck with the dearth of reliable literature on the forts of India.'2

15 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In the summer of 1920, when the Khilāfat movement (1918−24) was at its height, thousands of British Indian Muslims, under severe emotional stress, began to emigrate to the neighbouring Muslim country of Afghanistan as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: In the summer of 1920, when the Khilāfat movement (1918–24) was at its height, thousands of British Indian Muslims, under severe emotional stress, began to emigrate to the neighbouring Muslim country of Afghanistan. Believing that British India was no longer safe for Islam they had sought refuge in the hijrat or voluntary withdrawal as the only course left open to them.

13 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The May Thirtieth Incident which occurred in Shanghai during 1925 has been regarded by the Chinese as one of the most important events in modern Chinese history, and the incident has been called Wu-san Ch'an-an (the May 30th Tragedy) ever since 1925 as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: The May Thirtieth Incident which occurred in Shanghai during 1925 has been regarded by the Chinese as one of the most important events in modern Chinese history, and the incident has been called ‘Wu-san Ch'an-an’ (the May 30th Tragedy) ever since 1925. Yet only a few studies in the Western languages deal with such an important event. Among those few studies, two of them concentrate on the role of labor in the movement, and the other after collecting a lot of source materials decides to add a subtitle, ‘an outline’, to recognize the vastness and complexity of the subject without making much effort to analyze or discuss the movement.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In particular, our modern discussions are the heirs of a Russian heritage, inevitably mirroring, in some aspect, the great arguments about agrarian change which raged there between the late nineteenth century and collectivization as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: To debate about patterns of economic and social mobility within peasant societies is hardly a new game. In particular, our modern discussions are the heirs of a Russian heritage, inevitably mirroring, in some aspect, the great arguments about agrarian change which raged there between the late nineteenth century and collectivization. Two elements ensured for the Russian literature a special cogency and the potential for widespread application. Firstly, the mass of zemstvo statistics provided a more reliable empirical base to theoretical discussions than in any other equivalent society. Secondly, the debate over the peasantry was at the very forefront of the economic and political struggle over Russia's future. Russia between 1890 and 1930 was a society uniquely torn between the advanced and the less developed worlds, bouts of extensive, feverishly quick industrial growth coexisting with an agriculture where Malthusian crisis seemed inexorably to be gathering. The economic performance of the peasantry, three-quarters of the population, clearly provided the key to Russia's developmental fate. In addition, understanding agrarian society was crucial to the political battle for the country. If a large and powerful rich peasant class existed or, as Stolypin hoped, could be created, then the countryside's loyalty could be secured for a conservative regime. Alternatively, Lenin's interpretation of an impoverished, embittered majority within the peasantry seemed to promise a much sounder basis for political revolution than the support of the tiny Russian industrial proletariat. This immediate, practical importance of the Russian peasant debate sharpened the cut and thrust of the arguments.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, King analyzed the physical effects of the special requirements of British Colonial urban organization in India, and documents the extraordinary range of inequalities in spatial use, hygiene and comfort that resulted.
Abstract: and completely separated from the Indian populations, which became so highly formalized in the planning of New Delhi after 1900. The larger mansions of the colonial administrators, belonging self-consciously to the same genus as the neo-classical houses of the aristocracy in Britain, had only those concessions made for the climate as would not interfere materially with their imposing style. The contrast with the living patterns of the Indians was at first a striking one—although the lessons filtered quickly through the layers of society, until by the time of independence much of the expatriate style of life had been copied by the upper echelons of the indigenous people. Dr King catalogues all this faithfully, together with the annual shift to the hillstations, and describes in detail the peculiar environments which evolved. He analyses the physical effects of the special requirements of British Colonial urban organization in India, and documents the extraordinary range of inequalities in spatial use, hygiene and comfort that resulted. It is a fascinating subject, which should interest readers within a wide range of disciplines.

Journal ArticleDOI
Anand A. Yang1
TL;DR: The early impetus for such changes in Bengal came during the energetic administration of Sir George Campbell, the Lieutenant Governor from 1871 to 1874, under his auspices, attempts were made to extend the administrative machinery down to the sub-district levels by the creation of sub-deputy collectorships and the revitalization of such local officials as kanungos (registrars), patwaris (village accountants) and chaukidars.
Abstract: The late nineteenth century was a period of selective institution-building by the British in India. Government's efforts were directed primarily towards the development of a more effective control and communications infrastructure. The initial impetus for such changes in Bengal came during the energetic administration of Sir George Campbell, the Lieutenant Governor from 1871 to 1874. Under his auspices, attempts were made to extend the administrative machinery down to the sub-district levels by the creation of sub-deputy collectorships and the revitalization of such local officials as kanungos (registrars), patwaris (village accountants) and chaukidars (village watchmen). Better connections to local society were also sought through institutions which linked government to its allies, such as municipal, local, and district boards, and the Court of Wards.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: For example, the negative image of the Empress Dowager Tz'u-hsi (1835-1908) has been widely used by traditional Chinese historians as discussed by the authors, who have long relied on the works of men such as K'ang Yu-wei (1858-1927) and Liang Ch'i-ch'ao (1873-1929), the two leaders of the radical reform movement, and other pro-Emperor radical reformers.
Abstract: Clio, the Muse of History, has not been kind to the Empress Dowager Tz'u-hsi (1835–1908). Traditional Chinese historians always have been prejudiced against feminine influence in court. Moreover, historians have long relied upon the works of men such as K'ang Yu-wei (1858–1927) and Liang Ch'i-ch'ao (1873–1929), the two leaders of the radical reform movement, and other pro-Emperor radical reformers, most notably Wang Chao (1859–1935), Yun Yu-ting (1863–1918), Lo Tun-jung (d. 1923), and Li Hsi-sheng, for their information about the workings of the Ch'ing court during the period 1898 to 1900. Since these men were opposed to the power and conservatism of the Empress Dowager, their prejudice is reflected in their writings about the court at that time. Many historians also have relied upon the works of Western writers such as J. O. P. Bland, Sir Edmund Backhouse, and Hosea B. Morse for their information about this period. In fact, Bland and Backhouse's China Under the Empress Dowager is the book which has shaped many of our present-day negative images of Tz'u-hsi. Recently the reliability of Sir Edmund Backhouse has been seriously challenged by Hugh Trevor-Roper in his excellent study, Hermit of Peking. There can be no doubt that Western writers drew their facts from exchanges with the writings by the Chinese radical reformers, from unreliable eunuchs, and from highly biased newspapers, such as the North China Herald (a pro-reform Western-oriented Shanghai newspaper) and the Ch'ing-i pao [China Discussion], which was edited by Liang Ch'i-ch'ao and published in Yokohama.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Seavoyage was a social reform issue of some concern to the Hindus of Upper India in the latter part of the nineteenth century and the early twentieth century as mentioned in this paper. But social conflict is seldom as one-dimensional as these statements imply.
Abstract: Seavoyage was a social reform issue of some concern to the Hindus of Upper India in the latter part of the nineteenth century and the early twentieth century. Clearly there were compelling incentives for seavoyage; equally clearly there was a convention which prohibited such travel in the belief that it contravened the law laid down in ancient texts. But social conflict is seldom as one-dimensional as these statements imply.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The role of the state in promoting Indian economic development in the nineteenth century is one of several aspects of modern Indian economic history which have been reinterpreted in recent years.
Abstract: The role of the State in promoting Indian economic development in the nineteenth century is one of several aspects of modern Indian economic history which have been ‘re-interpreted’ in recent years. The conventional wisdom once portrayed the policy of the British government in India as one essentially geared to serving British economic interests. By means of ‘discriminatory interventionism’ in economic affairs, it was argued, the Government encouraged the development of a primary commodity export economy, with all its attendant defects, in India. However, over the last two decades the reputation of the Government of India has undergone a rather noticeable transformation. Economic imperialists became, first, benevolent nightwatchmen, and then ‘development-orientated’ officials formulating an embryonic unbalanced growth model for Indian development. Parallel with this improvement in the Government of India's reputation has been a deterioration in the economic reputations of certain other governments in nineteenth-century developing economies, governments whose performances used to be favourably compared with that of the British in India. In the cases of Japan and Tsarist Russia, for instance, both the extent and effectiveness of State intervention in the economy has been questioned, and there has been an increasing recognition of the primacy of non-governmental factors in the economic growth of those countries. Given the ideological and organizational parameters limiting the range of possible activity by any nineteenth century government in its economy, the performance of governments in other developing countries of the period, and the political constraints imposed by being a subordinate section of a world-wide Empire, it is no longer possible regard the actions of British officials in India as wicked, and many would now regard them as almost respectable.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a modern method of transliteration has been adopted, although the decision to retain the S(anskrit)E(nglish)D(ictionary's) rl for the more conventional f is inexplicable.
Abstract: Hinduism has been compared to a vast boundless ocean into which the streams of many traditions have flowed for many centuries. A student of Hinduism is like a sailor making a voyage on such an ocean. Without a pilot or accurate and comprehensive charts, he will drift helplessly. Some aspects of Hinduism are better charted than others, in particular the philosophy and the Vedic period, while in recent years several detailed studies of individual gods have appeared. There are, however, very few publications which succeed in being both comprehensive and accurate. Those who for many years have had to rely upon John Dowson's A classical dictionary of Hindu mythology and religion, geography, history and literature will have realized only too well the accuracy of that author's statement: 'the work is no doubt very defective.' According to the dust-cover of the book under review, its intention is to bring Dowson's work up to date and make good its deficiencies. One obvious improvement over Dowson is that a modern method of transliteration has been adopted, although the decision to retain the S(anskrit)E(nglish)D(ictionary's) rl for the more conventional f is inexplicable. Since Dowson normally lists words in their Sanskrit form, it is impossible for those who do not know the Sanskrit equivalent of a word, e.g. 'caste', to look it up. This new dictionary has a list of English-Sanskrit equivalents (pp. 369-72), where the reader is informed that 'caste' can be looked up under the headings varna, gotra, and jdti. This improvement should have been pointed out prominently in the Introduction, for until the reader discovers it for himself he will be unable to use the book to its full advantage. Another difference from Dowson (whether an improvement or not will be a matter of dispute) is in the provision of comparisons with other countries and other religions. So we find (s.v. abhicdra 'magic') the employment of incantations compared with the rite of cursing in medieval Christianity, and 'going against the sun' compared with the European 'widdershins'. Interesting though some of these parallels are, they may well be a source of confusion to non-experts who will assume that (near) parallelism means dependence, for it is rarely made clear whether the information is given merely as a matter of interest, or whether any direct connection is implied. Some of the parallels border on the naive, e.g. the comparison (s.v. kalpadruma 'the wish-granting tree') with the gifts hung on Christmas trees in Europe, while (s.v. cakravartin) the circle (mandala) of a king's near and distant neighbours, with whom he must maintain political and diplomatic relations, is compared with King Arthur and the knights of the round table. Where a direct influence is stated, it sometimes seems very debatable, e.g. (s.v. jyotifa) the fact that the Icelandic Poetic Edda states that in Odin's heavenly warrior hall there were 540 doors, through each of which 800 fighters will

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The legacy of the Portuguese Jesuits and Spanish mendicant orders in Japan in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries was strongly felt both in Japan and in the Catholic Church as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: The legacy of the Portuguese Jesuits and Spanish mendicant orders in Japan in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries was strongly felt both in Japan and in the Catholic Church. In Japan the alien religion had been suppressed in the early Edo period and throughout the decades of sakoku measures continued to be taken to ensure that Christianity would not re-emerge. In Europe, however, the determination of Christian missionaries to return to Japan persisted. Already in the seventeenth century, after the expulsion of the Iberian missionaries and at a time when the French Societe des Missions Etrangeres (established in 1658) had been granted by the papacy the exclusive right of missionary work in the Far East, on two occasions bishops of the Societe were appointed Apostolic Vicars to Japan—even though, needless to say, they never set foot in the country. Throughout the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries Japan remained little more than a distant memory of the past and a distant hope for the future. Following the French Revolution, the end of the Napoleonic wars, the onset of the Bourbon Restoration and with increasing French naval activity in the Far East, however, the Societe's interest in Japan revived.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors make generalizations about social stratification in the study of modern Bihar and conclude that the idea of stable hierarchies has no applicability to rural India and suggest an alternative approach.
Abstract: The rural history of modern India has been and is being written for the most part within the terms of that dictum of Louis Dumont, that ‘a certain hierarchy of ideas, things and people, is indispensable to social life’. Even the scholar who has most recently questioned the distributions of power between sections of the community in North India, arguing for inter-dependence of landlords, peasantry and traders, has still emphasized village controllers, and ‘momentum towards social differentiation’, ‘to produce groups of rich peasants, or rather to continue their existence’. The identity of such rich peasants remains obscure or at least specific to the region being studied; but obviously it would be very useful to have similar generalizations about social stratification in the study of modern Bihar. Hitherto the foundation at least of political histories there has been caste or caste groups, yet economic hierarchy, that related but more enigmatic pecking-order, is surely equally important. In this paper I seek a basis for making such generalizations. Grave difficulties stand in the way. My conclusion throws doubt on the applicability to Bihar of the idea of stable hierarchies, and suggests an alternative approach.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The Rdmcaritmanas of Tulsidas is considerably more than a'sixteenth-century vernacular version' (p. 51) of Valmiki's Ramdyana.
Abstract: of the introspective Chayavad school at a time of growing political tension may be seen by some less as a paradoxical event than as a necessary, first stage of the north Indian 'progress of poesie', a difficult first step, long in the preparation, away from inner traditionalism towards a consolidation of new attitudes of mind. Pant's Pallav appeared in 1926, not in 1928. The Rdmcaritmanas of Tulsidas is considerably more than a 'sixteenth-century vernacular version' (p. 51) of Valmiki's Ramdyana. David Rubin makes a signal contribution with these translations to increased understanding in the West of the quality, interest and value of modern Indian literature. We must hope that some other Indian writer may in the future benefit as handsomely from his attention as have Premcand and Nirala.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A bewildering variety of coins and paper notes, generally issued by local banks and money-changing shops, were used in each province, though they would probably not be accepted at face value in the neighbouring province.
Abstract: FINANCIAL chaos was the rule during China's warlord period from I916 to 1928. The Central Government in Peking was often short of funds because the warlords who controlled the provinces refused to forward tax receipts to the capital. The effectiveness of the financial administrative machinery in each province varied greatly, and if careful accounts were kept by the provincial governments, they have not been made public. Most confusing of all was the assortment of currencies circulating in the provinces. A bewildering variety of coins and paper notes, generally issued by local banks and money-changing shops, were used in each province, though they would probably not be accepted at face value in the neighbouring province. In some areas foreign currency, such as Mexican silver dollars or Japanese gold yen notes, could also be found in the key market towns. So many currencies were in use that local chambers of commerce met daily to calculate the relative values of the currencies traded in their immediate area.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors showed that the Congregational Church's missionary activity in Korea was actually supported by the Government-General of Korea, and also mentioned a number of conscientious Christians such as Uchimura Kanzō and Kashiwagi Gien who not only opposed the Church's mission in Korea but even went so far as to criticize the Japanese imperialist rule of Korea itself.
Abstract: This essay is the sequal to ‘The Missionary Activity of the Japan Congregational Church in Korea’. In the first part, I showed that the Congregational Church's missionary activity which started in 1911 was actually supported by the Government-General of Korea, and also mentioned a number of conscientious Christians such as Uchimura Kanzō and Kashiwagi Gien who not only opposed the Church's missionary activity in Korea but even went so far as to criticize the Japanese imperialist rule of Korea itself.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The Sensuous Immortals as discussed by the authors is a catalogue of a selection from the enormous Pan-Asian collection, a private (and anonymous) American collection of South and South-East Asian sculptures.
Abstract: The Sensuous Immortals is the catalogue of a 'selection from the enormous Pan-Asian collection' (p. 6), a private (and anonymous) American collection of South and South-East Asian sculptures. If this breathtaking 'selection', most of which is here published for the first time, typifies the whole collection, we can only hope for further similar publications, for this is sumptuous fare. The pieces themselves are superb, and as components of such a collection they naturally attain a value even higher than any they may possess individually. As to the book itself: Dr Pal's Introduction, and his comments on each piece, are sensitive and helpful (a map and a chronological-geographical table of the styles represented would have done no harm, however); and the photographs are as good as they could possibly be. Indeed, they are so good as to highlight their own deficiency: they make one long to see the objects themselves. I wonder who owns the Pan-Asian collection—I wish I did.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the author describes the missionary activity of the Japan Congregational Church (Nihon Kumiai Kirisuto Kyōkai) in Korea between the years 1911 and 1921, and the various criticisms raised against it from both inside and outside the Church.
Abstract: The Purpose of this essay is to portray the missionary activity which the Japan Congregational Church (Nihon Kumiai Kirisuto Kyōkai) undertook in Korea between the years 1911 and 1921, and the various criticisms raised against it from both inside and outside the Church (owing to limited space we shall treat only the period up to the 1st March Movement).In doing so we shall try to illustrate at least partially the general views which Japanese Protestants held about Korea at the time.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The cultural and religious section of the book gives the impression of being not so much a collection of articles on topics chosen as essential to the theme of the conference, as an assortment of the products of such relevant specialists as American academe as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: also—in relation to literature—the hypothesis of Professor Hayashiya (one of the conference participants) that Muromachi culture is the product of the newly-formed group called machishu; one would like to know what discussion of this repudiation of Hayashiya's idea took place at the conference. On the whole, the cultural and religious section of the book gives the impression of being not so much a collection of articles on topics chosen as essential to the theme of the conference, as an assortment of the products of such relevant specialists as American academe could provide. There is, of course, nothing wrong with that, and it in no way detracts frdm the value of the individual articles in themselves. It merely means that as a book this record of the conference proceedings is a little unbalanced. That being said, it would be wrong to suggest that it is anything but a most stimulating collection of scholarly articles that give real and valuable insights into life in Muromachi Japan. One hopes that something similar can sometime be done for other periods of Japanese civilization, with the same fruitful cooperation between Japanese and foreign scholars. And perhaps next time adequate proof-reading will avoid some of the gross mistakes which disfigure this volume.

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TL;DR: In this paper, the authors argue that the only social science which can be adequate is that which is historical and suggest that the most significant outcome of Dr Carter's book may be negative, to show us the limitations of the orthodox anthropological tradition.
Abstract: mobility between the vetendar and non-vetendar categories. But the differences between a situation which is dominated by an open-ended class elite and one which is dominated by a closed caste elite are obviously so immense that the problem demands systematic investigation. The mechanisms of social mobility, however, can be approached only through a study of social processes, not social structures. Equally Dr Carter offers us only a few perfunctory remarks on the economy to explain why non-vetendars are the inferiors of vetendars. But he cannot be said to show us how the economy works to maintain this subordination. Moreover, the problem becomes compounded when we hear of the existence of some members of the non-elite (e.g. Buddhist Mahars) who clearly do not (or at least no longer) accept their inferiority. We need to know a great deal more about the processes of political economy underpinning vetendar dominance before it can be said that we understand the current bases of that dominance. In spite of the many positive virtues which it possesses, the most significant outcome of Dr Carter's book may be negative—to show us the limitations of the orthodox anthropological tradition and to suggest that the only social science which can be adequate is that which is historical.

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TL;DR: Islam is the faith of the largest number of people in the developing world; Muslims have a long tradition of resistance to the West as mentioned in this paper and they also have a sense of mission, and this has come to be regarded quite specifically as a commitment to promote spiritual values against what is sensed as the disastrous materialism of both the western and the eastern blocs.
Abstract: of the kind so lightly worn by Bernard Lewis. Islam is the faith of the largest number of people in the developing world; Muslims have a long tradition of resistance to the West. They also have a sense of mission, and this has come to be regarded quite specifically as a commitment to promote spiritual values against what is sensed as the disastrous materialism of both the western and the eastern blocs. Now with new wealth and more power this sense of mission gains fresh strength. From Morocco to Merauke men cry with the poet, Iqbal: 'The world has become dissolute by the despoilation of Europe. O! thou builder of the Ka'ba, arise and build a new world again.'

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F. Gilbert Chan1
TL;DR: Sun Yat-sen arrived in Shanghai in August 1922 after suffering a humiliating defeat at the hands of his former ally, Ch'en Chiung-ming, and negotiated with Russian and Chinese Communists for their collaboration with the Kuomintang as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Sun Yat-sen arrived in Shanghai in August 1922 after suffering a humiliating defeat at the hands of his former ally, Ch'en Chiung-ming. In the next five months, he negotiated with Russian and Chinese Communists for their collaboration with the Kuomintang. His effort was fruitful, On January 26, 1923, he issued a joint manifesto with the Soviet emissary, Adolf Joffe, who assured the Chinese revolutionary leader—in the name of the ‘Russian people’—of their ‘warmest sympathy for China’ and their ‘willingness to lend support.’.