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Showing papers in "Modern Asian Studies in 1984"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The British Empire established itself and expanded largely through its incorporation of existing indigenous political structures as mentioned in this paper, where a single British Resident or Political Agent, controlling a regional state through 'advice' given to the local prince or chief, became the norm for much of the Empire.
Abstract: The British Empire established itself and expanded largely through its incorporation of existing indigenous political structures. A single British Resident or Political Agent, controlling a regional state through ‘advice’ given to the local prince or chief, became the norm for much of the Empire. India's princely states, where from the mid-eighteenth century the British first employed and developed this system of indirect rule, stood as the conscious model for later imperial administrators and politicians who wished to extend the Empire without the economic and political costs of direct annexation. In dealing with Malaya, East and West Africa from the mid-nineteenth century onward, officials in the field and notables in London sought to justify imperial expansion and to establish indirect rule efficiently by drawing upon the Indian example.Thus, during a century of empirical learning from relations with India'sprincely states, the British established a body of theory and policies about indirect rule which then spread throughout the rest of the Empire.

41 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The study of federal political systems, particularly those in the United States, Canada, or India involves complexities that do not exist in unitary states such as Great Britain or France.
Abstract: THE study of federal political systems, particularly parliamentary or representative federal political systems, such as those in the United States, Canada, or India involves complexities that do not exist in unitary states such as Great Britain or France. In the first place, there are three or more institutional levels in such systems, each of which has its own arena in which political struggles take place. Second, the balance of power among the levels in federal systems varies in different systems and in the same system at different times. Third, the study of the extraparliamentary organizations, such as political parties, and of social movements, also becomes a more complex task since it cannot be assumed that a political party or social movement with the same name is the same sort of formation in New York and Mississippi or in Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Moreover, in federal systems with a high degree of regional cultural diversity, each federal unit in the country may have a distinctive configuration of extraconstitutional political formations and social forces. This is certainly the case in India, the most

37 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The Malayalam-speaking region of southern India, once known as the Malabar coast and now the state of Kerala, was portrayed as a bastion of orthodox high Hinduism as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: Until recently the Malayalam-speaking region of southern India—once known as the Malabar coast and now the state of Kerala—was portrayed as a bastion of orthodox high Hinduism. The region's caste system was famous for its intricacy and supposed rigidity; its temples were rich, numerous and heavily patronized by Malayali rulers; and there was a general sense of the area as a picturesque backwater hidden away behind the western Ghats, untouched by the turbulent forces at work elsewhere in south Indian society. According to this view Kerala was a static society, ‘pure’ in culture and religious tradition, and ripe for drastic modernization once British suzerainty was established during the nineteenth century.

30 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The need for intermediaries and collaborators was built into the very economic and political structures of these towns as discussed by the authors, and these groups inevitably had a tremendous influence on the development and environments of these colonial urban centers.
Abstract: If Calcutta of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries was a city of ‘banians,’ can Madras of the same period be called a city of ‘dubashes’? The parallels in the early history of these two port cities, and particularly in the emergence of similar groups of Indian collaborators, are not hard to find. Nor are they especially surprising in view of the common goals and needs of the English traders who founded them. The need for intermediaries and collaborators was built into the very economic and political structures of these towns. In turn, these groups inevitably had a tremendous influence on the development and environments of these colonial urban centers.

29 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The continuities between the study of the West through Dutch in Tokugawa Japan and the program of modernization in the Meiji period seem self evident as discussed by the authors, and that debate greatly enriches our feel for Japanese society then and now.
Abstract: The continuities between the study of the West through Dutch in Tokugawa Japan and the program of modernization in the Meiji period seem self evident. The influence of Holland through Deshima became the focus of the life work of Itazawa Takeo and others well before the war, and it received detailed discussion from Charles Boxer in 1936. Nevertheless issues of the importance and influence of Tokugawa rangaku continue to be debated, and that debate greatly enriches our feel for Japanese society then and now.

24 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors argued that the Muslims were modernizing at a faster rate than Hindus, that they had a larger share of government jobs than their fourteen percent of the population would warrant, and that Muslim politicians erected a myth of "the backward Muslim" to protect this privilege, and then selected communally divisive symbols to mobilize support for their own drive to power.
Abstract: One of the most intriguing questions in the modern history of North India is why the Muslims of the United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh, and referred to hereafter as U.P.; see Map 1) supported the demand for Pakistan when it was obvious that if they were successful they would have either to remain in a Hindu dominated India, or suffer the upheaval of migration. In recent years Paul Brass and Francis Robinson have debated the general question of Muslim separatism in U.P., taking positions which Brass has described, respectively, as ‘instrumentalist’ and ‘primordialist’. Brass argues that the Muslims were modernizing at a faster rate than Hindus, that they had a larger share of government jobs than their fourteen percent of the population would warrant, that Muslim politicians erected a myth of ‘the backward Muslim’ to protect this privilege, and then selected communally divisive symbols to mobilize support for their own drive to power. In short, the ‘instrumentalist’ position argues the autonomy of the ‘game of symbol selection’ on the part of the politicians, and therefore of the significance of symbol response on the part of those who supported the Muslim League and its demand for Pakistan. Robinson, on the other hand, first disagrees that the backwardness of the Muslims was a myth, especially relative to the role they perceived they had played in U.P. society for many centuries, and secondly, he seeks to demonstrate that the religious and cultural assumptions of the Muslim political leaders shaped and directed their actions.

23 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A curious and as yet little discussed phenomenon of the Edo period is the immense increase among ordinary lay people in journeys of pilgrimage as mentioned in this paper, where people of all classes, alone and in groups, began to make their way in ever larger throngs to the Ise Shrines, to Kōyasan, to Zenkōji, to Fujisan, and to the various circuits of thirty-three places dedicated to Kannon and the eighty-eight places devoted to Kǫbō Daishi.
Abstract: A curious and as yet little discussed phenomenon of the Edo period is the immense increase among ordinary lay people in journeys of pilgrimage. From the middle of the seventeenth century people of all classes, alone and in groups, began to make their way in ever larger throngs to the Ise Shrines, to Kōyasan, to Zenkōji, to Fujisan, and to the various circuits of thirty-three places dedicated to Kannon and the eighty-eight places dedicated to Kōbō Daishi.

21 citations



Journal ArticleDOI
Richard G. Fox1
TL;DR: A cornerstone of Wallerstein's theory of the capitalist world system is that economic development occurs in certain (core) regions of the world system at the expense of development in other (peripheral) regions as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: A cornerstone of Wallerstein's (1974) theory of the capitalist world system is that economic development occurs in certain (core) regions of the world system at the expense of development in other (peripheral) regions. This thesis, accepted in one form or another by scholars following a dependency, neo-Marxist, or unequal exchange conception of economic development (as, for example, Amin 1976 or Laclau 1971; see discussion in Foster-Carter 1973 and Kahn 1980: 203ff) provides the foundation for their avowal of the ‘development of underdevelopment.’ The development of the core industrial capitalist nations required, so they argue, the distorted and repressed economic development of the third world.

20 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The main reason for the extremely poor quality of so many official socioeconomic statistics relating to the rural tropical world is the failure to realize that statistical procedures are based on conditions peculiar to advanced countries as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: Statistics relating to the sizes of farm-holdings the output and yield of crops household income and expenditure occupation cattle ownership and the sizes of villages were considered and some features of the Karnataka population census were criticized. The main reason for the extremely poor quality of so many official socioeconomic statistics relating to the rural tropical world is the failure to realize that statistical procedures are based on conditions peculiar to advanced countries. The All-India National Sample Survey is a rare example of a wasted exercise which runs into several hundred separate reports. Because of the inevitable unreliability of most statistics it should be assumed that all statistics covering whole countries or large states which relate to agricultural yields crop values and production are bound to include a large element of estimation. Organizations like the UN Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) should provide some information on the basis of estimates and statistical tables without notes should not be published such as the regular Statistical Bulletins of the FAO. Far fewer figures of far higher quality should be produced. Owing to the diversity of agrarian systems very few economic generalizations (any presumed inverse relationship between crop yield and size of farm-holding) can be of universal application. Organizations like the FAO should advise tropical countries that it is wasteful to collect statistics that are considered conventional in advanced countries because of the nature of their agrarian systems and systems of land tenure. Instead of estimating the proportions of households below poverty levels economic indicators of living standards such as agricultural wage rates and determinants of the distribution of household farmland should be identified.

20 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, it is observed that what to many students ofEuropean expansion has appeared to constitute the essential element intheir ability to explore, gain access to, and exploit the periphery, has been completely neglected: ocean transport, or to put it differently, themain body of the infrastructure of the world economy.
Abstract: An extensive body of literature has grown up in recent years devoted to the analysis of the causes of what is certainly the most pressing economic issue of our time: the unequal distribution of the world's wealth and income, and in particular what in shorthand may be called ‘the underdevelopment of the Third World’. Tremendous progress has been made by radical as well as more conventional social scientists, and our understanding of the processes of interaction, economic as well as otherwise, between the metropolitan core of western colonial powers and indigenous societies in the periphery has benefited commensurately. Naturally, the debate has tended to focus on the major sectorsinvolved in the processes of economic growth and modernization, agriculture and industry, with infrastructure a poor third. Nevertheless, it is somewhat surprising to observe that what to many students ofEuropean expansion has appeared to constitute the essential element intheir ability to explore, gain access to, and exploit the periphery, hasbeen completely neglected: ocean transport, or to put it differently, themain body of the infrastructure of the world economy. In some ways, no dependence is felt to be so absolute as that of the country that sees itscoastal traffic dominated and its exports carried by foreign-owned ships.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper made an appreciable contribution to the historiography of Hindi literature, and will be welcomed as a material aid and guide to the study of the subject, and made a contribution to Hindi literature.
Abstract: (Raghuvir Sahay might have been included among these). The artificiality of the drama is persuasively explained (reference might have been made in the survey of its nineteenth-century origins, p. 94, to the existence of successful but short-lived societies and theatres at Banaras, Allahabad, etc.: cf. this History, vol. 8, fasc. 2, pp. 92-3). Some topics might well, in this reviewer's opinion, have been given more attention. The magnitude of the achievement of Phanisvarnath 'Renu' in the regional novel is barely suggested (p. 66), and that of'Nirala' (pp. 32, 85f.) in poetry might have been brought out more clearly. The indebtedness of Bhagavatlcaran Varma in Cilralekhd to Anatole France's Thais deserved mention and discussion. A few slips and misspellings have been noted. Pallav was published in 1926 (not 1928); Premcand was born in 1880 (not 1881). For 'Rastra Sabha' (p. 82) read 'Rajya Sabha'. This work makes an appreciable contribution to the historiography of Hindi literature, and will be welcomed as a material aid and guide to the study of the subject.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, Bayly argues that the connections between India's colonial and pre-colonial history were close and powerful, and he is sceptical about the ultimate importance of the two external forces usually assumed to have moulded India's economy and society, the actions of the imperial state or the effects of international trade.
Abstract: This is both an important and an extremely impressive book, offering radically new interpretations which challenge many conventional assumptions about modern Indian history. Its central purpose is to 'provide a more adequate account of the connections between India's colonial and pre-colonial history' (p. 369). Dr Bayly leaves his readers in no doubt that he believes that the connections were close and powerful. Nineteenth-century Indian society, at least in the broad tracts of northern India with which this book is concerned, essentially evolved along lines laid down in the pre-colonial eighteenth century. For historians of Africa or of other parts of Asia to assert the Indian-ness of Indian history might seem to be no more than asserting the obvious, but much of Indian historiography has proceeded on the opposite assumption. Central to the old debates of the 'nationalist' and 'imperialist' history, now reincarnated under the standards of'the development of underdevelopment' or 'modernization', are assessments of the impact of British trade, British taxation and British education. Even those who argue for continuity rather than change, either upwards or downwards, tend to show how British initiatives were thwarted. Bayly does not begin with questions about what the British did or did not do. Furthermore, he is sceptical about the ultimate importance of the two external forces usually assumed to have moulded India's economy and society, the actions of the imperial state or the effects of international trade. His concern is with 'the intermediate groups which were consolidating themselves between state and the peasantry' (pp. 7-8). In charting the history of these groups Bayly rejects the conventional antithesis which suggests that the subjects of colonial rule were either shaped by it or were passive traditionalists who contracted out. His 'intermediate entities' did change in the nineteenth century, but they changed in accordance with their own internal dynamic rather than in response to outside pressures; it was from them that was to be 'recruited, ultimately, the Indian middle class' (p. 6). Whatever else may be denied to the influence of the British, the 'middle class' and 'westernized' have remained virtually synonymous. To provide an alternative genealogy for the Indian middle class, if not as yet in the 'old Presidencies', the assumed citadel of the westernized, is to open new perspectives. Bayly's earlier writings offered a glimpse into these new perspectives, but they are now fully revealed.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In the Ch'ing Dynasty (1644-1911) as discussed by the authors, the Confucian examination system was used to lead successful candidates into the bureaucracy, which denigrated the importance of commerce, of technological advancement, and of learning outside the Chinese classics; and it acted as a brake on social, political, and economic development.
Abstract: As had been the case throughout much of Chinese history, government during the Ch'ing dynasty (1644–1911) was largely in the hands of a civil bureaucracy staffed by the Confucian literati. Prevailing political thought held that moral suasion and commonly held ideals were in a large way responsible for keeping both the society and the body politic running smoothly. For this and other reasons, the court assigned a rather small number of bureaucrats to manage a truly vast population. In addition, it was commonly assumed by rulers and the ruled that China's was and should be primarily an agrarian society of self-sufficient peasants. The only orthodox avenue of social, even spatial, mobility was the Confucian examination system which led successful candidates into the bureaucracy. This view denigrated the importance of commerce, of technological advancement, of learning outside the Confucian classics; and it acted as a brake on social, political, and economic development.

Journal ArticleDOI
Jean-Pierre Lehmann1
TL;DR: This article argued that the image, it is alleged, is out-of-focus with reality, in other words, the image is out of focus with reality in the sense that it is not in line with reality itself.
Abstract: INDIVIDUALS and societies are as much influenced and motivated by perceptions of reality as by reality itself, indeed possibly more so. It is in that sense that the images which one society holds in relation to another are highly significant in terms of an understanding of the relationship between the two. Japanese officials tend to stress that problems which exist between Japan and Europe are due to 'misunderstandings'--and indeed the fact that Endymion Wilkinson's book on Europe and Japan ('Misunderstanding')1 has proved such a best-seller in its Japanese version, GOKAI, indicates that it struck a sensitive chord among the Japanese public. In other words, the image, it is alleged, is out of focus with reality. Presumably an aspiration, and an entirely legitimate one, in the mounting of the Great Japan exhibition was to redress and improve Japan's image in the West, namely by stressing the cultural legacy with the intention of diverting attention from the more powerful industrial dimension.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The Indian Civil Service as discussed by the authors was the vital link that carried the dictates of the centre to the two hundred and fifty districts that made up British India, and it was, nonetheless, a vital part of the structure of British rule.
Abstract: The British controlled their empire in India through the twin instruments of the army and the civil services. But the army was never used much to administer British territories and the day-to-day business of law and order was left to the civil services, headed by the élite corps of covenanted officers, the Indian Civil Service. This corps was the vital link that carried the dictates of the centre to the two hundred and fifty districts that made up British India. Obviously a Service only a thousand or so strong had a presence too thin to achieve what some hagiographers have claimed but it was, nonetheless, a vital part of the structure of British rule. In the years immediately following the first world war, this vital part seemed unable to cope with the galaxy of problems with which it was beset: its own members increasingly questioned the value of their role; Indian politicians attacked what they saw as the remnant of imperial control whilst, on the widest scale, the complex task of governing India seemed to be beyond the creaking, anachronistic and overworked I.C.S.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The formal, authoritarian organization of people with similar occupations or interests has been a feature of Japanese society throughout its history as mentioned in this paper and it must be of interest for its own sake and, no less perhaps, for the indications it can provide of the nature of Japanese Society as a whole.
Abstract: The formal, authoritarian organization of people with similar occupations or interests has been a feature of Japanese society throughout its history. As such, it must be of interest for its own sake and, no less perhaps, for the indications it can provide of the nature of Japanese society as a whole.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: For instance, Indian hill stations have often been portrayed as islands of European settlement, providing colonists with a retreat, both from the heat and the native culture of the plains as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: INDIAN hill stations have often been portrayed as islands of European settlement, providing colonists with a retreat, both from the heat and the native culture of the plains.1 British planners meant them to be English enclaves, but the image owes not a little to the innumerable references available in accounts written by the British in India. Hill stations, with their thickly wooded hills and swirling mist, afforded colonists an opportunity to build around themselves a replica of English life. The presence of European women in large numbers at hill stations enhanced the image. They, more than their men, tended to withdraw within the closed circle of European society. It was an endless succession of balls, archery, fetes, picnics and amateur theatre. Their diaries, letters and novels covering almost a century, hardly ever went beyond an account of the rounds of social engagements.2 The view has been perpetuated by fiction. Simla had its Rudyard Kipling, and that hill station was peopled by larger-than-life images created by the writer in the i88os.3 But so vivid was the evocation that British visitors seemed to search for them in Simla even a quarter of a century later.4 Edward

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: As an aspect of the Kansei Reforms at the end of the eighteenth century initiated by the Councilor of the Elders, Matsudaira Sadanobu, the Tokugawa bakufu officially took over the administration of the Shōheikō (The Confucian University in Edo).
Abstract: As an aspect of the Kansei Reforms at the end of the eighteenth century initiated by the Councilor of the Elders, Matsudaira Sadanobu, the Tokugawa bakufu officially took over the administration of the Shōheikō (The Confucian University in Edo). The Shōheikō had been operated as a private school by the Hayashi family, who held the hereditary position of education councilors to the bakufu . With the expansion of the faculty and facilities under the new administration, ways were opened even for the children of any domain retainer and for those of peasants and merchants.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: With increasing income disparity between the developed and the developing nations of the world, there is an increasing tendency on the part of various governments of the Third World countries to export labour power among other commodities, with the hope of getting overseas remittances to improve their unfavourable balance of payment vis-a-vis the developed nations and/or to improve the economic well-being of the country as a whole as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: With increasing income disparity between the developed and the developing nations of the world, there is an increasing tendency on the part of various governments of the Third World countries to export labour power among other commodities, with the hope of getting overseas remittances to improve their unfavourable balance of payment vis-a-vis the developed nations and/or to improve the economic well-being of the country as a whole. As well, some individual families and communities in dire straits are eager to send their members overseas not only to reduce the number of mouths to be fed but also to earn extra income to keep themselves from sinking too far below the poverty line.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The first attempt to bring together all women interested in female education in Bengal was the convocation of a Bengal Women's Education Conference in February 1927 which led to the formation of the Bengal women's education League.
Abstract: The first attempt to bring together all women interested in female education in Bengal was the convocation of a Bengal Women's Education Conference in February 1927 which led to the formation of the Bengal Women's Education League. The problems of female education had received considerable attention from social reformers in nineteenth-century Bengal, but the formation of the League signified that for the first time women were taking over the responsibility for leadership of the women's education movement. The All-India Women's Education conference had been held in January of the same year, 1927, indicating that the formation of the League in Bengal was part of a national trend of coordinated activity to improve educational opportunities for women.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The opening up of Japan to the west and the consequent influences of the western and Japan upon each other are remarkable for many reasons, not least of which is the interchange of styles and techniques of the arts and crafts one to the other.
Abstract: The opening up of Japan to the west and the consequent influences of the west and of Japan upon each other are remarkable for many reasons, not least of which is the interchange of styles and techniques of the arts and crafts one to the other. The export of Japanese works of art, and the influence upon European artistic production during the Meiji period (though often of works produced during the Edo period) have all but obscured the remarkable effects Japanese export art had upon the west during the period of self-imposed semi-isolation. Of course Japan was also greatly influenced by western art; that is not the subject of this paper, but it is a subject of great interest, worthy of considerable attention.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper explored the Western image of Japanese art during the period from 1853 to 1867 and found that both comments are ill-conceived and prejudiced; yet both in their own way are characteristic Western reactions of the time.
Abstract: These are two very different assessments of Japanese art and artists both published in London during the 1860s. We may argue that both comments are ill-conceived and prejudiced; yet both in their own way are characteristic Western reactions of the time. In this paper I should like to explore the Western image of Japanese art during the period from 1853 to 1867.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is generally accepted that nationalism has two frames of reference: external: the pursuit of national independence, asserting the nation's freedom from domination by other states or groups; and internal: a commitment to national unity, requiring political and social cohesion.
Abstract: It is generally accepted that nationalism has two frames of reference. One is external: the pursuit of national independence, asserting the nation's freedom from domination by other states or groups. The second is internal: a commitment to national unity, requiring political and social cohesion. Both are associated with awareness of cultural identity, which is the nation's image of itself in terms of those characteristics that are held to be common to its members.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: When Le Myre de Vilers arrived in Saigon in mid-1879 as the first civilian to be appointed governor of Cochinchina after nearly two decades of rule by admirals, he carried a letter of instructions in which the Minister of the Navy and Colonies, Admiral Jaureguiberry, outlined his mission: to endow the colony with the institutions of a civilian government and administration.
Abstract: When Le Myre de Vilers arrived in Saigon in mid-1879 as the first civilian to be appointed governor of Cochinchina after nearly two decades of rule by admirals, he carried a letter of instructions in which the Minister of the Navy and Colonies, Admiral Jaureguiberry, outlined his mission: to endow the colony with the institutions of a civilian government and administration.In his instructions, Jaureguiberry noted the desirability of giving the Vietnamese a role in running the affairs of Cochinchina.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the focus of the movement for recovering mining and railway construction rights highlighted the development of Chinese economic nationalism, and the conservative Manchu government and scholar-gentry tried to resist imperialism by promoting economic nationalism.
Abstract: With the climax of imperialism in China at the end of the nineteenth century, Chinese nationalism in its modern form grew rapidly and became ever more assertive. As the imperialists concentrated on economic gains, the frustrated nationalists gave increasing attention to economic defences. The prime target of the imperialists was the control of mining and railway construction in different areas; so ‘to resist the imperialists’ became the catchword of the day, and the movement for recovering mining and railway construction rights highlighted the development of Chinese economic nationalism. While revolutionaries and the fugitive reformers abroad worked out their political programmes for the salvation of China, the conservative Manchu government and scholar-gentry tried to resist imperialism by promoting economic nationalism. To recover the mining and railway rights, to find the alternative capital for economic modernization and to play one power against another, became the strategic aims of economic nationalism.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a study of Norinaga's thought and method of scholarship written by the eminent literary critic, Kobayashi Hideo, was published in 1977, its sales triggered substantial journalistic comment, especially because the book was widely read even among those outside the academic community, such as mid-level business executives.
Abstract: MOTOORI Norinaga (I730-I8OI) stands at the forefront of those thinkers in Japanese history who are attracting the greatest attention today. When the work entitled Motoori Norinaga, a study of Norinaga's thought and method of scholarship written by the eminent literary critic, Kobayashi Hideo, was published in 1977, its sales triggered substantial journalistic comment, especially because the book was widely read even among those outside the academic community, such as mid-level business executives. At roughly the same time, there also appeared academic studies by several other scholars. Furthermore, while collections of Norinaga's works appeared three times prior to the end of the second world war (1901-03, 1924-27, and 1943-44, the last incomplete), a new large-scale collection totaling 23 volumes and including diaries, letters, and other related materials, as well as his published works, has been in publication since 1968, and is now nearing completion. One reason for this growth in interest in Norinaga lies in the fact that the products of Norinaga's studies of the Japanese classics continue to exert considerable influence on present-day academic research in early Japanese history and literature. At the same time, it can also be said that Norinaga, as an intellectual living during the Edo Period who accurately comprehended the essence of the traditional mode of thought of the Japanese through research into the classics, has become the object of interest for a large number of people. The eighteenth century in Japan was the period immediately preceding contact with the modern civilizations of the West, and in Norinaga's thought, which rejected Confucianism and Buddhism as imported ideas, we may find an indication of the results ofJapanese self-awareness, which had matured in the peaceful society of the Edo Period. Thus we may say that, in this sense, this interest in Norinaga reflects a quest for the Japanese identity. oo26-749X/84/o70o8-ogo2$o5.oo ? I984 Cambridge University Press

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The Treaty of Nanjing was only the first of a series of unequal treaties which led to the opening of over 100 treaty ports along the coast and in the interior of China as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: In the aftermath of the Opium War of 1839–42, China was continuously subjected to increasing Western political and economic penetration. The Treaty of Nanjing was only the first of a series of unequal treaties which led to the opening of over 100 treaty ports along the coast and in the interior of China. In many of these ports Great Britain, France, Germany, Russia, the United States, Japan and other imperialist powers set up concessions under their administration and outside Chinese jurisdiction. There their nationals could freely trade, invest in banking, industry and construction, and engage in missionary and other cultural activities. Thus, although China never completely fell under the direct control of any imperialist power, the treaty ports were functionally similar to the port cities of Western colonies as linkages to the metropolitan countries.Did these treaty ports serve as beachheads of imperialism which facilitated foreign extraction of raw materials, exploitation of a cheap labor market, and displacement by cheap imports of native handicrafts left unprotected by the loss of tariff autonomy, as neo-Marxist historians charge? Or, as the revisionist scholars contend, were they centers of political and economic modernization where Western ideas and institutions were communicated to the Chinese, and where Western entrepreneurship and capital not only pioneered in modern industry, but also prompted imitative responsesfrom Chinese entrepreneurs? And yet, did the ports fail to have any major impact at all on Chinese political organization and socio-economic development, as Chinese mercantile interests thwarted Western attempts to penetrate the economy?

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The derivation of the word is not certain, but it is generally taken as a lengthened form of hiki, with a meaning of pulling or pulling together as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: Hiiki is the word commonly used for support given to a Kabuki actor, or for the supporter or fan himself. It can be applied to other sorts of ‘fan’, such as one who follows a particular sumō wrestler. The derivation of the word is not certain, but it is generally taken as a lengthened form of hiki , with a meaning of ‘pulling’ or ‘pulling together’. The clubs themselves were known as hiiki renchū , the last element having the alternative pronunciation renjū . Throughout this paper, ‘hiiki’ , ‘supporter’ and ‘fan’ have been used indiscriminately with the same meaning.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, it was shown that the Kyōchūkikō was only a new and shorter edition (1710) of the earlier travelogue Fūryūshishaki (‘Report of the Elegant Emissaries’), written in 1706.
Abstract: Little did it occur to me when I began to translate Ogyū Sorai's Kyōchūkikō (‘Report from Journey to Kai’) some years ago that this endeavour would lead me to the first work that was written by this philosopher. Even after I had shown that the Kyōchūkikō was only a new and shorter edition (1710) of the earlier travelogue Fūryūshishaki (‘Report of the Elegant Emissaries’), written in 1706, it still took time before I realized that this must be the very first work to come from Sorai's brush. The Fūryūshishaki must be his first work and this means that he was 40 before he wrote anything that was literary, and of any length. What we have from before that time are short pieces, letters, poems, and memoranda; also the lexical work Yakubun sentei, which was probably written, at least partially, before 1706.