Showing papers in "Mountain Research and Development in 2000"

Land Cover Changes Between 1958 and 1986 in Kalu District, Southern Wello, Ethiopia

Abstract: This paper evaluates changes in land use/land cover (hereafter land cover) in a specific area in Kalu District, Southern Wello, Ethiopia, by comparing two aerial photographs from 1958 and 1986. An attempt is also made to discuss possible implications of these land cover changes for land degradation. By applying Geographic Information Systems (GIS), two maps of the study area (for the years 1958 and 1986) were produced. The maps show a decrease in coverage by shrublands, riverine vegetation and forests, and an increase in remaining open areas, settlements, floodplains, and a water body. The areal extension of nine categories of land cover was calculated and, by overlaying the two maps, the percentage of each type of land cover that was converted into other categories was computed. Land cover changes were most noticeable for shrublands, with a decrease of 15.5 km2 (–51%), and for remaining open areas (ie, excluding cultivated areas and settlements), with an increase of 14.3 km2 (+333%). Areas under...

A Simulation of Biomes on the Tibetan Plateau and Their Responses to Global Climate Change

Abstract: The improved processbased equilibrium terrestrial biosphere model (BIOME3China) was run under the present climate to model the potential biomes on the Tibetan Plateau on a 109 grid. The simulated biome was basically in good agreement with a potential natural vegetation map based on a numerical comparison between two maps using the ⌉V statistic (⌉V = 0.38). A coupled oceanatmosphere general circulation model including sulfate aerosols was used to drive a double greenhouse gas scenario to the end of the next century. The simulated vegetation under changed climate with a CO2 concentration of 500 ppmv and a baseline biome map were also compared using the ⌉V statistic (⌉V = 0.4). The climate change would cause a large reduction in the temperate desert, alpine steppe, desert, and ice/polar desert, a large increase in the cold-temperate conifer forest, temperate shrubland/meadow, and temperate steppe, and a general northwestward shift of all vegetation zones. In addition to simulation of biome distribution, BIOME3China also predicted net primary production (NPP) of each grid cell. Comparisons between predicted annual NPP and 160 forest NPP measurements show an agreement between them with a linear regression, despite many problems, such as the quality of the field data. The pattern of predicted annual NPP in the scenario with enhanced CO2 concentration was the same as that under the present climate; however, the NPP of each biome would increase significantly. Present permafrost simulated using the air frost index was quite similar to the actual frozen ground distribution on the Tibetan Plateau. After the change in climate, the boundary between continuous and discontinuous permafrost would shift toward the north of the plateau by about 1‐2° in latitude. The continuous permafrost would mostly disappear, whereas the no-permafrost area would greatly increase. The movement of permafrost would take place with the shift of vegetation zones to the north. The disappearance of permafrost and the expansion of no-permafrost areas would accelerate the desertification of the Tibetan Plateau.

Protective Forests and Silvicultural Stability: An Example of Planning in the Aosta Valley

Abstract: Protection is of vital importance to human populations and activities in the European Alps. In the short to medium term, failure to manage alpine protective forests leads to intolerable risks for people who live and make a living in alpine valleys. The most important features of a protective forest are its stability properties, that is, its ability to carry out its protective function reliably and continuously and, if this is achieved, its ability to maintain its structure and vitality in the face of internal and external influences. Since maintaining and improving stability properties is costly and labor intensive, the objective of interventions should be an acceptable—rather than an ideal—degree of stability in order to ensure the functions required of the protective forest over a 20–50 year period. Such interventions are collectively referred to as minimal tending. A case study of the Ban de Ville forest in Courmayeur (Aosta Valley, Italy) illustrates aspects of silvicultural planning. Only on...

The Significance of Fire for Afroalpine Ericaceous Vegetation

Abstract: This paper presents results from studies in 4 mountain regions in East Africa, 2 in Ethiopia (Simen Mountains, Bale Mountains), and 2 in Uganda (Rwenzori Mountains, Mount Elgon). The focus is on the ericaceous vegetation that forms the (upper) treeline ecotone at all sites. There is little evidence for climatic control of the patchy appearance of this belt in all afroalpine environments. Since traces of former fires were observed in all ranges, repeated burning is most probably responsible for the present appearance of the ericaceous vegetation in East Africa. The fires observed were almost exclusively lit by local people, who utilize the afroalpine zone for poaching, livestock grazing, and honey hunting. Although these fires are man-made and not strictly natural, they help to maintain a structurally and biologically diverse environment.

Erosion Processes in High Mountain Agricultural Terraces in Peru

Abstract: Old developed systems of agricultural terraces are found in settled areas with high relief in different parts of the world. The present trend to abandon many of these terraced areas constitutes a process that increases erosion and sediment yield values following the collapse of supporting walls. This paper addresses the problem of changing human activities in the fragile environment of the historical terraces in the Central Andean mountains of Peru. The study is based on field experiments. Eight small plots were installed in the Santa Eulalia basin at altitudes of 2800 m and up to 3650 m. Annual run-off coefficient values were less than 5% and sediment yield values less than 1 g/m2 on the experimental plots. Daily rainfall intensity does not exceed 10 mm/d on most rainy days. Simulation of rainstorms by sprinklers was performed on terraces with different physiographic characteristics, lithology, soil, exposure, slope, altitude, degree of abandonment, and vegetation cover. Rainfall simulation test...

Medicinal Plant Cultivation and Sustainable Development A Case Study in the Buffer Zone of the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, Western Himalaya, India

Abstract: The Nanda Devi Bio sphere Reserve (NDBR) in the western Himalaya has a high level of biological and cultural diversity. The Bhotiya community, whose livelihood is highly dependent on local natural resources, inhabits the buffer zone of NDBR. Bhotiya practice seasonal and altitudinal migration and stay inside the buffer zone of NDBR for only 6 months (May-October). A survey was conducted in 1996 in 5 villages in Pithoragarh District of the buffer zone, where Bhotiya cultivate medicinal plants on their agriculture fields. The aim of the survey was to understand the socioeconomics of medicinal plant cultivation and evaluate the future prospects of this practice in promoting sustainable development among the local community. Of a total of 71 families, 90% cultivated medicinal plants on 78% of the total reported cultivated area (15.29 ha). At the time of the survey, a total of 12 species of medicinal plants were under cultivation, of which 6 were being marketed while the remaining 6 were still under n...

Protecting the snow leopard and enhancing farmers' livelihoods: a pilot insurance scheme in Baltistan.

Abstract: Snow leopards that prey on poor farmers' livestock pose a twofold problem: they endanger farmers' precarious mountain livelihoods as well as the survival of the snow leopard as a unique species since farmers engage in retaliatory killings. Project Snow Leopard (PSL), a recent pilot initiative in Baltistan, involves a partnership between local farmers and private enterprise in the form of an insurance scheme combined with ecotourism activities. Farmers jointly finance the insurance scheme through the payment of premiums per head of livestock they own, while the remaining funds are provided by profits from trekking expeditions focusing on the snow leopard. The insurance scheme is jointly managed by a village management committee and PSL staff. The scheme is structured in such a way that villagers monitor each other and have incentives to avoid cheating the system.

Contemporary Landscape Change in the Huascarán National Park and Buffer Zone, Cordillera Blanca, Peru

Abstract: As part of The Mountain Institute's monitoring and evaluation program, historic landscape photographs from 10 photopoints of the 1936 and 1939 German/Austrian climbing and cartographic expeditions to the Cordillera Blanca (Huascaran National Park) were replicated in 1997 and 1998. Comparisons revealed contemporary changes in native forest cover, nonnative forest cover, glacial recession, grazing impacts, and urban expansion. Results indicated an apparent stability and/or increase in native Polylepis forest cover, significant regional increases in nonnative Eucalyptus and Pinus forest cover, improved pasture conditions in some areas, widespread glacial recession, and increases in regional urbanization. Important management-related questions in need of further study are identified, such as the impacts of cattle on Polylepis regeneration, correlations between road construction and forest loss, long-term impacts of nonnative forests, and strategies for the reintroduction of native forest species. Inc...

Andean Forests and Farming Systems in part of the Eastern Cordillera (Colombia)

Abstract: Andean ecosystems are among the most diverse and threatened ecosystems in the world. Only very general data on the extent and impacts of the transformation processes that have affected ecosystems in Colombia are available to date. This study analyzes the transformation of forests in part of the Eastern Colombian Andes, using the landscape ecological approach, with remote sensing, fieldwork, and GIS. There are two levels of analysis: a regional level (1: 500,000) covering 4.1 million ha and a subregional level (1: 50,000) covering 225,000 ha. The former covers the central portion of the East-Andean Cordillera, where the remaining forest and paramo areas were quantified and their spatial distribution analyzed. The subregional analysis level is located in the Middle Chicamocha Watershed. The effects of human activities on the ecosystems were analyzed, taking current farming systems into consideration. The historical human impact in the region has been intense, especially in the drier parts of the st...

Sectoral Fallow Systems and the Management of Soil Fertility: The Rationality of Indigenous Knowledge in the High Andes of Bolivia

Abstract: In the High Andes of Bolivia, sectoral fallow systems are a common form of land use. Fields in the study area (Japo, Department of Cochabamba) are cultivated for 3 years with potatoes as the first crop and then lie fallow for 9 years. Despite the low nutrient content of the soil and the high elevation of the area (between 4000 and 4500 m above sea level), farmers achieve relatively high yields. This is explained by traditional knowledge about soil fertility management. The study focuses on nutrient dynamics over a 12-year cycle. A participatory research approach was applied to obtain information about indigenous knowledge. Soil nutrient content, phytomass, and yields were measured in 72 fields together with the farmers. Subterranean phytomass was identified as the key factor in nutrient storage during the fallow period. A multiple linear regression model shows three main factors that determine potato yields on cultivated fields. Farmers know about the nutrient dynamics of the fields; hence, culti...

A boon for mountain populations. Large cardamom farming in the Sikkim Himalaya.

Abstract: Farming and tourism are the primary livelihood options for mountain people in the Hindu Kush‐Himalayan region. Tourism in Sikkim, a small Indian state in the eastern Himalaya, has become popular only since 1990; the main focus is on ecotourism. Only a small segment of the population is engaged in this sector, however. More than 80% of the population depends on agriculture. The developmental measures of the “green revolution” implemented in other Indian states were not successful in the Himalayan region because adequate fertilizers were never available on time, irrigation could not be developed, and soils are very fragile. Population growth and consequent fragmentation of farmland in Sikkim have caused a reduction in per capita holdings. This has forced farmers to cultivate cash crops such as potatoes (Solanum tuberosum), ginger (Zingiber officinale), and mandarin oranges (Citrus reticulata). The latter two have caused rapid nutrient depletion of the soil. Production of another cash crop, large cardamom (Amomum subulatum) ,a plant native to the Sikkim Himalaya, has been a boon to the mountain people of the area. Large cardamom is a perennial cash crop grown beneath the forest cover on marginal lands. Its cultivation is an example of how a local mountain niche can be exploited sustainably.

Mitigating Conflicts Over Scarce Water Resources in the Highland-Lowland System of Mount Kenya

Abstract: The Mount Kenya region offers a great deal of beautiful scenery and attracts tourists from all over the world. What these tourists may not see, however, is the crucial function of Mount Kenya as a water tower for its footzones and adjoining lowland areas. This function is becoming ever more crucial, as populations in these areas are growing at a rapid pace and new land use systems require far more water. These developments have set the stage for increasing conflicts over water resources; to make things worse, water is becoming ever scarcer, especially in the dry areas of the Laikipia Plateau and the Samburu Plains to the north and west of the mountain. This article summarizes the complex ecological and socioeconomic dynamics prevailing in the highland-Blowland system of Mount Kenya—the Ewaso Ng'iro North Basin—and presents a multilevel strategy for mitigating the emerging conflicts over water resources.

Change and Persistence: Contemporary Landscape Transformation in the Nanga Parbat Region, Northern Pakistan

Abstract: The regional land use system in northern Pakistan is based on irrigated crop cultivation on valley floors, combined with animal husbandry and forest utilization in the upper altitudinal belts. Local communities subsist on this agropastoral economy to a considerable extent. Environmental conditions and the ecological risks of resource utilization are intimately linked in this high mountain region. Rapid population growth, a corresponding increase in pressure on natural resources, and the consequent danger of environmental degradation raise questions about sustainable resource management in relation to contemporary land use and land cover change. The present study investigates vegetation changes and the development of land use patterns in the Nanga Parbat region (Northwest Himalaya) using matched pairs of photographs. A comprehensive collection of historical landscape photographs, taken by members of the German Himalaya expeditions of 1934 and 1937, forms a valuable baseline data set for the area. ...

Mountain agrobiodiversity in Peru: seed fairs, seed banks, and mountain-to-mountain exchange.

Abstract: Conservation of agricultural biodiversity has become an important paradigm in efforts to promote sustainable development throughout the world. This is especially the case in Andean countries, where ex situ conservation of crops has been a focus of attention since the 1970s. In Peru in the early 1990s, researchers and development specialists also focused on in situ conservation and the participation of campesino communities in mountain development processes. They designed the Cajamarca model as a result of several years of experience in rural development projects. This model includes so-called seed fairs (Figure 1) and encourages the creation of local seed banks managed by a conservationist campesino association. The HimalAndes Project, which promotes technical cooperation to support exchange of seeds and local knowledge between mountain agriculture ecosystems, is another recent project with a partial focus on agrobiodiversity conservation in Andean and other countries.

Globalization and Fragile Mountain Environments

Abstract: Mountain areas are faced with a range of new problems in the context of rapid globalization and economic liberalization. There are visible incompatibilities between the driving forces and operational mechanisms of market-driven globalization and the imperatives of mountain conditions. Thus, selective overextraction of resources in response to market signals and narrow specialization that disregard local diversity are incompatible with the fragility, inaccessibility, diversity, and marginality of mountain regions. The negative impacts of globalization and new trade policies on local production systems are already visible in many parts of the Hindu Kush–Himalayan region, and niche markets with comparative advantages for mountain regions are disappearing. There is a need to adapt to the changes brought by globalization. A few key areas in which new approaches could minimize the negative impacts and harness the positive opportunities associated with globalization are outlined below for the attention ...

Livelihood Strategies and Local Perceptions of a New Nature Conservation Project in Nepal

Abstract: The recently established Kanchenjunga Conservation Area Project (KCAP)—jointly managed by the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC) and World Wildlife Fund (WWF)—is based on the principles of the new participatory concept of nature conservation. The main objectives are to protect the unique environment of the Kanchenjunga region and to help local communities improve their standard of living. This study focuses on existing livelihood strategies and local institutions as well as on the local population's perception of the participatory approach. A theoretical consideration of the different concepts of nature and conservation is regarded as helpful in understanding locally observed processes. The results show wide diversification in the economic system that contributes to sustaining livelihood. Various local institutions have established governance over particular resources. With regard to the KCAP, it became obvious that nearly all interviewees had expectations that went far beyond the intended and economically feasible potential of the project. This is largely because they do not entirely comprehend the principal aim of “conservation.” On the other hand, most of the local people believe that conservation of nature is necessary in their region and that it is only possible through a joint effort made by everyone in the community.

Preserving the Unique Puna Ecosystems of the Andean Altiplano A Descriptive Account of Lauca National Park, Chile

Abstract: Lauca National Park forms a unique area of puna and prepuna ecosystems in the high Altiplano of northeastern Chile. Its extensive puna steppe shrublands lying above 4000 m and high volcanoes reaching above 6000 m provide some of many strong justifications for its designation as a UNESCO International Biosphere Reserve in 1983. The park also contains Lago Chungara, the highest lake in the world at 4518 m elevation, and a rich variety of fauna and flora. The mammal fauna of the park includes notable populations of large herbivores such as vicuna, guanaco, and huemul, and a rich diversity of rodent species. More than 140 species of birds, one third of the total Chilean bird fauna—with many rare wetland species— and more than 400 species of vascular plants occur within the park. Despite its relatively pristine natural environment, Lauca National Park faces numerous management challenges. These include the management of critical and limited water resources, the impacts of human population and tourism,...

Timur (Zanthoxylum armatum) Production in Nepal Dynamics in Nontimber Forest Resource Management

Abstract: The use of nontimber forest products (NTFPs) in tropical forest management is currently receiving greater attention. Use of NTFPs starts with extraction from natural forests but may gradually be intensified to cultivation of domesticated trees. In order to enhance understanding of the evolutionary processes in NTFP production, this article analyzes the different management systems of timur (Zanthoxylum armatum) production in Nepalese forests. Products of this medicinal plant are regularly traded with India. Four different management regimes on open-access state lands, two different types of community-controlled lands, and private lands are described, each being characterized by a specific set of access regimes, organizational rules for collecting and managing timur, and management practices. A gradual increase in management intensity takes place from public lands to private lands as a result of various socio economic and politico-legislative factors. In contrast to earlier Nepalese studies, increased market price rather than increased scarcity was found to be the most important factor inducing intensification. It is concluded that the effects of supply and demand factors on management intensity of NTFPs cannot be generalized; these effects depend on both the management and marketing characteristics of specific NTFPs.

The Availability, Fruit Yield, and Harvest of Myrica esculenta in Kumaun (West Himalaya), India

Abstract: Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don is a popular, potentially income-generating wild edible in the Indian Himalaya. The species prefers Pinus roxburghii Sarg., Quercus leucotrichophora A. Cam., and mixed Quercus forests, contributing 15–26% of total tree density in the forests. It performs best in Pinus roxburghii forests, where its density correlates with Pinus tree biomass. The regeneration of Myrica is poor in all the habitats. However, recruitment of species increases consistently from abundant Myrica to no-Myrica stands. The fruit yield increases with tree size category and differs between habitats. The potential yield at different sites is 2.0–4.2 tonnes/ha, of which 2.8–7.2% is harvested for income generation. The income generated from Myrica fruit is significant, considering the regional annual per capita income. The possible impact of fruit harvesting and other disturbance factors on the regeneration of the species is discussed. There are significant options for enhancing the income-ge...

Management of Land Use Conflicts in the United States Rocky Mountains

Abstract: People have long been attracted to the beauty and grandeur of the Rocky Mountains. Until very recently, however, the Rocky Mountain region was sparsely populated and its use mostly extractive. Commodities removed in massive quantities included first beaver, then precious metals, timber, energy, and finally water. There has been a fundamental change in migration patterns since the 1980s. Populations are expanding not only in urban areas; many rural areas are also growing faster. In an affluent and mobile society, Americans are moving to the West for aesthetic reasons, often based on perceptions that have little to do with regional roots, family ties, or economic opportunities. Wallace Stegner described the West into the 1980s as a colony for the rest of the nation. “It seems to be almost like a continuous repetitive act of God that the western resources should be mined …, that populations should rush in and have to rush out again, or trickle out again…. Get in, get rich, get out….Every boom and bu...

Water Balance and Soil Loss Under Long Fallow Agriculture in the Venezuelan Andes

Abstract: In the paramo ecological belt of the Venezuelan Andes, a long fallow agricultural system is used to produce potatoes and cereals. Total rainfall, surface runoff, soil moisture, drainage, and soil loss were measured in this system during two consecutive years on 10 plots cropped with potatoes and on two successional plots with fallow periods of 1 and 15 years. Total rainfall (1129 mm on average) is characterized by many low-intensity events. The low rainfall intensity and high soil infiltration capacity partly explain the very low runoff (only 1.7% of the rainfall) and the low rates of soil loss (0.58 t/ha/y) on the cultivated plots. The main water outputs were by evapotranspiration (61%) and drainage (37%). The greatest runoff and soil losses were observed at the beginning of the fallow period when the ground cover was scarce; however, after a few months of fallow, both processes decreased below the rates measured on the cultivated plots. Because soil loss was not significant on all study plots, ...

The ecological crisis in Chiapas: a case study from Central America.

Abstract: Most landscapes in Chiapas were recently subjected to a change in land use that has caused various environmental problems in a highland-lowland interactive system. In the Soconusco coastal plain, cash crops with long dry fallow periods caused a decline in precipitation, whereas in the lower escarpment of the Sierra Madre, coffee plantations with unshaded cultivation in rows and inputs of herbicides reinforced major hydrological fluctuations. While these impacts have been reduced during the last decade, demographic pressure in the upper part of the Sierra Madre and in the Altos de Chiapas, resulting in a growing need for land, is responsible for advancement of the frontier of settlement into steeper parts of the Sierra and toward Lacandonia. The resulting soil erosion and leaching cause further degradation, and, together with elevated runoff rates, also have a heavy impact on the forelands. This was evident in September 1998 in the form of disastrous floods and devastation in the Soconusco plain.

Management Conflicts in the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, India

Abstract: Biosphere reserve models around the world are becoming increasingly people-oriented and conservation-conscious in achieving their objectives. However, reserves established in developing countries, such as the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve in India, are facing management versus people conflicts due to the insensitivity of management to both genuine and irrational demands coming from people who are motivated by potential economic benefits. The present case study focuses on the issue of crop and livestock depredation by wildlife as a major source of conflict. Feasible solutions in the given socioeconomic context are outlined here; some of these are being tested by the authors in the study area. The results are expected to provide more sustainable livelihood measures and stimulate greater participation in conservation programs.

Use of Sensitivity Analysis to Evaluate Key Factors for Improving Slash-and-Burn Cultivation Systems on the Eastern Escarpment of Madagascar

Abstract: Slash-and-burn for pluvial rice cultivation (Tavy) is a predominant component in the land use system on the Eastern Escarpment of Madagascar. It causes ecological degradation and subsequent aggravation of rural poverty. After conducting multidisciplinary research resulting in an in-depth diagnosis of the area's agroecological system, the BEMA (Bilans ecologiques a Madagascar) project now aims to propose improvements and alternatives to the land use system. The objective of contributing relevant knowledge to stakeholder discussions and enhancing the choice of development priorities has called for a method allowing aggregation of existing knowledge, in order to constitute an integrated overall picture of the local level. The present article illustrates the application of a sensitivity analysis. This method allows exploitation of existing knowledge with a view to setting priorities among key factors with regard to a postulated development objective and discussion of possible strategies for developme...

Biodiversity Conservation in Peru's Eastern Montane Forests

Abstract: Sometimes the most appropriate form of economic development consists of retaining native forests on steep slopes where other land uses are environmentally destructive and where economic or humanitarian considerations do not override these limitations. This is especially the case when native plant and animal species are diverse and special, as, for example, in many of the forested areas found on the humid eastern slopes of Peru's Andes Mountains. The authors recently evaluated the biological diversity there. They provide a brief outline of their findings and conclusions.

GIS Assessment of Vegetation and Hydrological Change in a High Mountain Catchment of the Northern Limestone Alps

Abstract: Large-scale vegetation mapping (1:10,000) was applied to obtain estimates of the hydrological properties and dynamics in catchment areas that supply water to the capital city of Austria (Vienna). Vegetation types as defined by standard releve technique, such as alpine grassland, snow bed vegetation, and krummholz were related to habitat conditions. A GIS served as the focal exploration tool. The vegetation units show specific evapotranspiration rates, which were derived from literature on experimental research covering similar vegetation types in the Alps. Additionally, physical soil properties from field data were used to derive the specific soil water balance in relation to the mapped vegetation types. Finally, the hydrological balances for each landscape unit, as well as for the total catchment area, were presented by combining the estimates for evapotranspiration and soil water properties. The consequences of environmental change (forestry, pasturing, and climate warming) are a focus of atten...

Useful Plants Within a Campesino Community in a Costa Rican Montane Cloud Forest

Abstract: An ethnobotanical survey was carried out among a campesino community in a Costa Rican montane cloud forest. Campesino families were interviewed about how they used indigenous and introduced vascular plants along an altitudinal gradient (2000–3000 m). From a total of 590 species known in the area, 23.8% of 189 useful plant species were used for medicinal purposes, 39.7% for food, and 24.3% for construction (timber) or as combustibles (fuelwood, charcoal). Less important uses included dye, ornament (ecotourism), fodder, gum, oil, and poison. A total of 61.9 % of the plants were used for one purpose only. The introduced and exotic woody species Cupressus lusitanica and Eucalyptus globulus showed the highest diversity in types of use (7), together with the native Alnus acuminata. Trunks (53%) and fruits (47%) were the main plant organs used, followed by leaves (33%) and branches (30%). Over 27.5% of all plants were used on a daily basis, while 34.9% were used occasionally. About 11.6% of the species ...