Showing papers in "Mycorrhiza in 2015"
TL;DR: Across all host and symbiont combinations under all soil moisture conditions, AM plants have shown 24 % higher gs than nonmycorrhizal (NM) controls and the AM influence on gs has been even more pronounced under severe drought, with over four times the promotion observed with ample water.
Abstract: Stomata regulate rates of carbon assimilation and water loss. Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbioses often modify stomatal behavior and therefore play pivotal roles in plant productivity. The size of the AM effect on stomatal conductance to water vapor (g s ) has varied widely, has not always been apparent, and is unpredictable. We conducted a meta-analysis of 460 studies to determine the size of the AM effect under ample watering and drought and to examine how experimental conditions have influenced the AM effect. Across all host and symbiont combinations under all soil moisture conditions, AM plants have shown 24 % higher g s than nonmycorrhizal (NM) controls. The promotion of g s has been over twice as great during moderate drought than under amply watered conditions. The AM influence on g s has been even more pronounced under severe drought, with over four times the promotion observed with ample water. Members of the Claroideoglomeraceae, Glomeraceae, and other AM families stimulated g s by about the same average amount. Colonization by native AM fungi has produced the largest promotion. Among single-AM symbionts, Glomus deserticola, Claroideoglomus etunicatum, and Funneliformis mosseae have had the largest average effects on g s across studies. Dicotyledonous hosts, especially legumes, have been slightly more responsive to AM symbiosis than monocotyledonous hosts, and C3 plants have shown over twice the AM-induced promotion of C4 plants. The extent of root colonization is important, with heavily colonized plants showing ×10 the g s promotion of lightly colonized plants. AM promotion of g s has been larger in growth chambers and in the field than in greenhouse studies, almost ×3 as large when plants were grown under high light than low light, and ×2.5 as large in purely mineral soils than in soils having an organic component. When AM plants have been compared with NM controls given NM pot culture, they have shown only half the promotion of g s as NM plants not given anything at inoculation to control for associated soil organisms. The AM effect has been much greater when AM plants were larger or had more phosphorus than NM controls. These findings should assist in further investigations of predictions and mechanisms of the AM influence on host g s .
393 citations
TL;DR: The ability to contribute to P and N nutrition is widespread within the Glomeromycota and that differences in symbiotic performance and P metabolism are not specific for individual fungal morphospecies.
Abstract: Plant growth responses following colonization with different isolates of a single species of an arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungus can range from highly beneficial to detrimental, but the reasons for this high within-species diversity are currently unknown. To examine whether differences in growth and nutritional benefits are related to the phosphate (P) metabolism of the fungal symbiont, the effect of 31 different isolates from 10 AM fungal morphospecies on the P and nitrogen (N) nutrition of Medicago sativa and the P allocation among different P pools was examined. Based on differences in the mycorrhizal growth response, high, medium, and low performance isolates were distinguished. Plant growth benefit was positively correlated to the mycorrhizal effect on P and N nutrition. High performance isolates increased plant biomass by more than 170 % and contributed substantially to both P and N nutrition, whereas the effect of medium performance isolates particularly on the N nutrition of the host was significantly lower. Roots colonized by high performance isolates were characterized by relatively low tissue concentrations of inorganic P and short-chain polyphosphates and a high ratio between long- to short-chain polyphosphates. The high performance isolates belonged to different morphospecies and genera, indicating that the ability to contribute to P and N nutrition is widespread within the Glomeromycota and that differences in symbiotic performance and P metabolism are not specific for individual fungal morphospecies.
132 citations
TL;DR: Results provide further evidence that rhizospheric microorganisms affect fruit crop quality and show that they do so even under conditions of reduced chemical fertilization and can thus be exploited for sustainable agriculture.
Abstract: There is increasing interest in the quality of crops because of the implications concerning health, economic revenue, and food quality. Here we tested if inoculation with a mixture of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and/or two strains of plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB), in conditions of reduced chemical inputs, affects the quality and yield of strawberry fruits. Fruit quality was measured by concentrations of soluble sugars, various organic acids, and two vitamins (ascorbic and folic acid). Co-inoculation with the AMF and each of the two PGPB resulted in increased flower and fruit production, larger fruit size, and higher concentrations of sugars and ascorbic and folic acid in comparison with fruits of uninoculated plants. These results provide further evidence that rhizospheric microorganisms affect fruit crop quality and show that they do so even under conditions of reduced chemical fertilization and can thus be exploited for sustainable agriculture.
119 citations
TL;DR: It was found that AM fungal inoculation increased the nutrient quality of tomato fruits for most nutrients except vitamins, and inoculated plants had fruit with higher antioxidant capacity and more carotenoids.
Abstract: Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi can affect many different micronutrients and macronutrients in plants and also influence host volatile compound synthesis. Their effect on the edible portions of plants is less clear. Two separate studies were performed to investigate whether inoculation by AM fungi (Rhizophagus irregularis, Funneliformis mosseae, or both) can affect the food quality of tomato fruits, in particular common minerals, antioxidants, carotenoids, a suite of vitamins, and flavor compounds (sugars, titratable acids, volatile compounds). It was found that AM fungal inoculation increased the nutrient quality of tomato fruits for most nutrients except vitamins. Fruit mineral concentration increased with inoculation (particularly N, P, and Cu). Similarly, inoculated plants had fruit with higher antioxidant capacity and more carotenoids. Furthermore, five volatile compounds were significantly higher in AM plants compared with non-AM controls. Taken together, these results show that AM fungi represent a promising resource for improving both sustainable food production and human nutritional needs.
112 citations
TL;DR: A pot study evaluated effects of the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Funneliformis mosseae on GRSP production and soil enzyme activities to indicate that AM-mediated production of GRSP and relevant soil enzymes activities may not depend on external P concentrations.
Abstract: Glomalin-related soil protein (GRSP) is beneficial to soil and plants and is affected by various factors. To address whether mycorrhizal-induced GRSP and relevant soil enzymes depend on external P levels, a pot study evaluated effects of the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (AMF) Funneliformis mosseae on GRSP production and soil enzyme activities. Three GRSP categories, as easily-extractable GRSP (EE-GRSP), difficultly-extractable GRSP (DE-GRSP), and total (EE-GRSP + DE-GRSP) GRSP (T-GRSP), were analyzed, together with five enzyme activities (β-glucosidase, catalase, peroxidase, phosphatase, polyphenol oxidase) in the rhizosphere of trifoliate orange (Poncirus trifoliata) grown under 0, 3, and 30 mM KH2PO4 in a sand substrate. After 4 months, root AM colonization and substrate hyphal length decreased with increasing P levels. Shoot, root, and total biomass production was significantly increased by AM colonization, regardless of P levels, but more profound under 0 mM P than under 30 mM KH2PO4. In general, production of these three GRSP categories under 0 or 30 mM KH2PO4 was similar in non-mycorrhizosphere but decreased in mycorrhizosphere. Mycorrhization significantly increased the production of EE-GRSP, DE-GRSP and T-GRSP, soil organic carbon (SOC), and activity of substrate β-glucosidase, catalase, peroxidase, and phosphatase, but decreased polyphenol oxidase activity, irrespective of P levels. Production of EE-GRSP, DE-GRSP, and T-GRSP significantly positively correlated with SOC and β-glucosidase, catalase, and peroxidase activity, negatively with polyphenol oxidase activity, but not with hyphal length or phosphatase activity. These results indicate that AM-mediated production of GRSP and relevant soil enzyme activities may not depend on external P concentrations.
106 citations
TL;DR: Soil moisture functioned as an abiotic filter and affected AMF community assembly inside plant roots by regulating AMF colonization and phylotype diversity and root P uptake was significantly influenced by soil moisture.
Abstract: Multiple species of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) can colonize roots of an individual plant species but factors which determine the selection of a particular AMF species in a plant root are largely unknown. The present work analysed the effects of drought, flooding and optimal soil moisture (15–20 %) on AMF community composition and structure in Sorghum vulgare roots, using PCR-RFLP. Rhizophagus irregularis (isolate BEG 21), and rhizosphere soil (mixed inoculum) of Heteropogon contortus, a perennial C4 grass, collected from the semi-arid Delhi ridge, were used as AMF inocula. Soil moisture functioned as an abiotic filter and affected AMF community assembly inside plant roots by regulating AMF colonization and phylotype diversity. Roots of plants in flooded soils had lowest AMF diversity whilst root AMF diversity was highest under the soil moisture regime of 15–20 %. Although plant biomass was not affected, root P uptake was significantly influenced by soil moisture. Plants colonized with R. irregularis or mixed AMF inoculum showed higher root P uptake than non-mycorrhizal plants in drought and control treatments. No differences in root P levels were found in the flooded treatment between plants colonized with R. irregularis and non-mycorrhizal plants, whilst under the same treatment, root P uptake was lower in plants colonized with mixed AMF inoculum than in non-mycorrhizal plants.
102 citations
TL;DR: This study demonstrated that the increase in plant growth was directly influenced by an increase in root colonisation by AMF when individual plants were examined.
Abstract: The effect of inoculation with two arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) on growth and drought tolerance of cultivated strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa) was studied. Three treatments (a single treatment either of Funneliformis mosseae BEG25, Funneliformis geosporus BEG11 or a 50:50 mixed inoculation treatment of both species) were compared to uninoculated plants. Species-specific primers for qPCR quantification of F. geosporus and F. mosseae DNA were developed to quantify the relative abundance of each fungus in roots of strawberry under different conditions of water stress. Co-occupation of the same root by both species was shown to commonly occur, but their relative abundance varied with water stress (reduced irrigation of up to 40 %). Greater root colonisation was observed microscopically under water stress, but this increased colonisation was often accompanied with decreased amounts of fungal DNA in the root. F. mosseae tended to become more abundant under water stress relative to F. geosporus. There was significant correlation in the fungal colonisation measurements from the microscopic and qPCR methods under some conditions, but the nature of this relationship varied greatly with AMF inoculum and abiotic conditions. Single-species inoculation treatments gave similar benefits to the host to the mixed inoculation treatment regardless of irrigation regime; here, amount of colonisation was of greater importance than functional diversity. The addition of AMF inocula to plants subjected to reduced irrigation restored plant growth to the same or higher values as the non-mycorrhizal, fully-watered plants. The water use efficiency of plants was greater under the regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) regime and in AMF-inoculated plants, but there were no significant differences between plants inoculated with the single or combined inoculum. This study demonstrated that the increase in plant growth was directly influenced by an increase in root colonisation by AMF when individual plants were examined.
91 citations
TL;DR: Warming, but not N addition, had a significant positive effect on AM fungal OTU richness, while warming and N addition significantly increased AMFungal Shannon diversity index and significantly altered the AMfungal community composition.
Abstract: Understanding the response of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi to warming and nitrogen (N) fertilization is critical to assess the impact of anthropogenic disturbance on ecosystem functioning under global climate change scenarios. In this study, AM fungal communities were examined in a full factorial design with warming and N addition in a semiarid steppe in northern China. Warming significantly increased AM fungal spore density, regardless of N addition, whilst N addition significantly decreased AM fungal extraradical hyphal density, regardless of warming. A total of 79 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) of AM fungi were recovered by 454 pyrosequencing of SSU rDNA. Warming, but not N addition, had a significant positive effect on AM fungal OTU richness, while warming and N addition significantly increased AM fungal Shannon diversity index. N addition, but not warming, significantly altered the AM fungal community composition. Furthermore, the changes in AM fungal community composition were associated with shifts in plant community composition indirectly caused by N addition. These findings highlight the different effects of warming and N addition on AM fungal communities and contribute to understanding AM fungal community responses to global environmental change scenarios in semiarid steppe ecosystems.
86 citations
TL;DR: This study suggests that increase in artemisinin concentration in Artemisia annua colonized by Rhizophagus intraradices is due to altered trichome density as well as transcriptional patterns that are mediated via enhanced jasmonic acid (JA) levels.
Abstract: It is becoming increasingly evident that the formation of arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) enhances secondary metabolite production in shoots. Despite mounting evidence, relatively little is known about the underlying mechanisms. This study suggests that increase in artemisinin concentration in Artemisia annua colonized by Rhizophagus intraradices is due to altered trichome density as well as transcriptional patterns that are mediated via enhanced jasmonic acid (JA) levels. Mycorrhizal (M) plants had higher JA levels in leaf tissue that may be due to induction of an allene oxidase synthase gene (AOS), encoding one of the key enzymes for JA production. Non-mycorrhizal (NM) plants were exogenously supplied with a range of methyl jasmonic acid concentrations. When leaves of NM and M plants with similar levels of endogenous JA were compared, these matched closely in terms of shoot trichome density, artemisinin concentration, and transcript profile of artemisinin biosynthesis genes. Mycorrhization increased artemisinin levels by increasing glandular trichome density and transcriptional activation of artemisinin biosynthesis genes. Transcriptional analysis of some rate-limiting enzymes of mevalonate and methyl erythritol phosphate (MEP) pathways revealed that AM increases isoprenoids by induction of the MEP pathway. A decline in artemisinin concentration in shoots of NM and M plants treated with ibuprofen (an inhibitor of JA biosynthesis) further confirmed the implication of JA in the mechanism of artemisinin production.
80 citations
TL;DR: Questions such as what makes the difference between a positive and a negative effect of AM on plant N nutrition are explored, and the patternless nature of current knowledge is made evident, and possible reasons for this are discussed.
Abstract: Many studies have established that arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi transfer N to the host plant. However, the role and importance of arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) in plant N nutrition is still uncertain, as are the C/N interactions within the symbiosis. Published reports provide differing, and often contradictory, results that are difficult to combine in a coherent framework. This review explores questions such as: What makes the difference between a positive and a negative effect of AM on plant N nutrition? Is the mycorrhizal N response (MNR) correlated to the mycorrhizal growth response (MGR), and how or under which conditions? Is the MNR effect on plant growth C mediated? Is plant C investment on fungal growth related to N needs or N benefit? How is the N for C trade between symbionts regulated? The patternless nature of current knowledge is made evident, and possible reasons for this are discussed.
67 citations
TL;DR: Variation in arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) communities is described for the first time in rupestrian grasslands in Brazil along an altitudinal gradient of 700 m (800 to 1400 m a.s.l).
Abstract: Variation in arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) communities is described for the first time in rupestrian grasslands in Brazil along an altitudinal gradient of 700 m (800 to 1400 m a.s.l.). Hypotheses tested were that soil properties influence the variation in AMF communities and that the frequency of the most common species of AMF is inversely influenced by the richness of other AMF. Field and laboratory data were collected on AMF community composition, richness, density, and frequency in the altitudinal gradient, and the relationships with several physical–chemical soil properties and altitude were evaluated. Fifty-one species of AMF were recorded, with 14 species being reported as possibly new to science and nine species representing new records for Brazil. This single elevation gradient alone contains 22 % of the known world diversity of AMF. Soil properties and AMF community density and richness varied significantly along the elevation (p < 0.05). AMF density and richness were higher at the intermediate altitude, while AMF species composition differed statistically among the altitudes.
TL;DR: Understanding of the functional diversity of AM fungi in ameliorating plant salt stress tolerance is enhanced and the potential use of R. irregularis for increasing Cajanus cajan productivity in saline soils is suggested.
Abstract: Soil salinity is an increasing problem worldwide, restricting plant growth and production. Research findings show that arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi have the potential to reduce negative effects of salinity. However, plant growth responses to AM fungi vary as a result of genetic variation in mycorrhizal colonization and plant growth responsiveness. Thus, profitable use of AM requires selection of a suitable combination of host plant and fungal partner. A greenhouse experiment was conducted to compare effectiveness of a native AM fungal inoculum sourced from saline soil and two single exotic isolates, Funneliformis mossseae and Rhizophagus irregularis (single or dual mix), on Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. genotypes (Paras and Pusa 2002) under salt stress (0–100 mM NaCl). While salinity reduced plant biomass and disturbed ionic status in both genotypes, Pusa 2002 was more salt tolerant and ensured higher AM fungal colonization, plant biomass and nutrient content with favourable ion status under salinity. Although all AM fungi reduced negative effects of salt stress, R. irregularis (alone or in combination with F. mosseae) displayed highest efficiency under salinity, resulting in highest biomass, yield, nutrient uptake and improved membrane stability with favourable K+/Na+ and Ca2+/Na+ ratios in the host plant. Higher effectiveness of R. irregularis correlated with higher root colonization, indicating that the symbiosis formed by R. irregularis had more stable viability and efficiency under salt stress. These findings enhance understanding of the functional diversity of AM fungi in ameliorating plant salt stress tolerance and suggest the potential use of R. irregularis for increasing Cajanus cajan productivity in saline soils.
TL;DR: The reported work was designed to increase knowledge about the role of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on the phytoavailability and allocation of some of the principal macroelements and microelements in young potted olive plants growing in a soil presenting high levels of manganese (Mn).
Abstract: The reported work was designed to increase knowledge about the role of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) on the phytoavailability and allocation of some of the principal macroelements and microelements in young potted olive plants growing in a soil presenting high levels of manganese (Mn), taken from an experimental olive field. A greenhouse trial was performed using self-rooted cuttings of Ascolana tenera, Nocellara del Belice and Carolea cultivars inoculated or not with two mycorrhizal inocula (commercial vs native). Molecular characterization of the indigenous AMF indicated that the species found in the experimental soil were different from those present in the commercial inoculum. The important incidence of AMF on P uptake was confirmed with generally double the concentration in mycorrhizal olive plants as compared to non-mycorrhizal controls, irrespective of genotype and inocula. Furthermore, apart from promoting plant growth (from 1.7- to 5-fold), the symbiosis reduced Mn concentrations from 43 to 83 %. The observed differences depended on the cultivar and the inoculum, with native AMF being more effective probably as a result of their adaptation to the experimental soil. No clear direct relationship was found between AMF inoculation and other elements analysed.
TL;DR: Results from this study suggest that AM-induced lower oxidative burst is related with higher antioxidant enzyme activities, root net H2O2 effluxes, and Ca2+ influxes under WW and DS.
Abstract: Mechanisms of arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM)-induced lower oxidative burst of host plants under drought stress (DS) are not elucidated. A noninvasive microtest technology (NMT) was used to investigate the effects of Funneliformis mosseae on net fluxes of root hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and calcium ions (Ca2+) in 5-month-old Poncirus trifoliata, in combination with catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities as well as tissue superoxide radical (O2
•−) and H2O2 concentrations under DS and well-watered (WW) conditions. A 2-month DS (55 % maximum water holding capacity of growth substrates) significantly inhibited AM fungal root colonization, while AM symbiosis significantly increased plant biomass production, irrespective of water status. F. mosseae inoculation generally increased SOD and CAT activity but decreased O2
•− and H2O2 concentrations in leaves and roots under WW and DS. Compared with non-AM seedlings, roots of AM seedlings had significantly higher net H2O2 effluxes and net Ca2+ influxes, especially in the meristem zone, but lower net H2O2 efflux in the elongation zone. Net Ca2+ influxes into roots were significantly positively correlated with root net H2O2 effluxes but negatively with root H2O2 concentrations. Results from this study suggest that AM-induced lower oxidative burst is related with higher antioxidant enzyme activities, root net H2O2 effluxes, and Ca2+ influxes under WW and DS.
TL;DR: The history of seedlings inoculated with truffles, procedures currently used in France for seedling control quality, and a reflection on future research aimed at increasing truffle production will be presented.
Abstract: The first commercialization of seedlings inoculated with truffle fungi occurred in 1973. Over the last 40 years, considerable progress has been made relative to quality control for inoculated seedlings. A recently published paper by Andres-Alpuente and colleagues (Mycorrhiza 24:29–37, 2014) reviewed and tested the different methods of mycorrhization assessment currently used in Europe. The aim of this paper is to augment their findings by adding information to the discussion about the most important steps in seedling quality control. Additionally, the history of seedlings inoculated with truffles, procedures currently used in France for seedling control quality, and a reflection on future research aimed at increasing truffle production will be presented.
TL;DR: Both water regime and the introduction of an invasive AMF species can strongly alter the structure of an AMF native assemblage with a consequent impact on the entire symbiotic mycorrhizal relationship.
Abstract: Field studies have revealed the impact of changing water regimes on the structure of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal (AMF) communities, but it is not known what happens to the abundance of individual AMF species within the community when the water conditions in the rhizosphere change. The behavior of four AMF species isolated from the Arabian desert (Diversispora aurantia, Diversispora omaniana, Septoglomus africanum, and an undescribed Paraglomus species) was investigated when assembled in microcosms containing Sorghum bicolor as host plant, and treated with various water regimes. Furthermore, the impact of invasion of these assemblages by Rhizophagus irregularis, an AMF species widely used in commercial inocula, was studied. The abundance of each AMF species in sorghum roots was measured by determining the transcript numbers of their large ribosomal subunit (rLSU) by real-time PCR, using cDNA and species-specific primers. Plant biomass and length of AMF extraradical hyphae were also measured. The abundance of each AMF species within the sorghum roots was influenced by both the water regime and the introduction of R. irregularis. Under dry conditions, the introduction of R. irregularis reduced the total abundance of all native AMF species in roots and also led to a reduction in the amount of extraradical mycelium, as well as to a partial decrease in plant biomass. The results indicate that both water regime and the introduction of an invasive AMF species can strongly alter the structure of an AMF native assemblage with a consequent impact on the entire symbiotic mycorrhizal relationship.
TL;DR: The successful use of bait seedlings in the natural environment to study BSR development represents a promising alternative to nursery trial testing in the field with shorter temporal assessment.
Abstract: The effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in combination with endophytic bacteria (EB) in reducing development of basal stem rot (BSR) disease in oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) was investigated. BSR caused by Ganoderma boninense leads to devastating economic loss and the oil palm industry is struggling to control the disease. The application of two AMF with two EB as biocontrol agents was assessed in the nursery and subsequently, repeated in the field using bait seedlings. Seedlings pre-inoculated with a combination of Glomus intraradices UT126, Glomus clarum BR152B and Pseudomonas aeruginosa UPMP3 significantly reduced disease development measured as the area under disease progression curve (AUDPC) and the epidemic rate (R
L) of disease in the nursery. A 20-month field trial using similar treatments evaluated disease development in bait seedlings based on the rotting area/advancement assessed in cross-sections of the seedling base. Data show that application of Glomus intraradices UT126 singly reduced disease development of BSR, but that combination of the two AMF with P. aeruginosa UPMP3 significantly improved biocontrol efficacy in both nursery and fields reducing BSR disease to 57 and 80 %, respectively. The successful use of bait seedlings in the natural environment to study BSR development represents a promising alternative to nursery trial testing in the field with shorter temporal assessment.
TL;DR: The results suggest that Gaultheria spp.
Abstract: Ericaceae diversity hotspots are in the mountains of the Neotropics and Papua New Guinea, South Africa’s fynbos and Southeast Asia but majority of references to their root mycobionts come from the Northern Hemisphere. Here, typical cultivable ericoid mycorrhizal (ErM) fungi comprise Rhizoscyphus ericae, Meliniomyces variabilis, and Oidiodendron maius. It is however unclear whether this is true also for the Southern Hemisphere. Our study focused on cultivable mycobionts from hair roots of Gaultheria mucronata and Gaultheria poeppigii (Ericaceae) from two natural forests in NW Patagonia, Argentina, differing in mycorrhizal preferences of their tree dominants. We detected 62 well-defined OTUs mostly belonging to Helotiales and Hypocreales; the most frequent were Phialocephala fortinii s. l., Pochonia suchlasporia, and Ilyonectria radicicola. Only one out of 257 isolates showed ITS nrDNA similarity to members of the R. ericae aggregate (REA) but was not conspecific with R. ericae, and only five isolates were conspecific with O. maius. Microscopic observations showed that the screened roots were frequently colonized in a manner differing from the pattern typically produced by R. ericae and O. maius. A re-synthesis experiment with selected isolates showed that only O. maius formed colonization resembling ericoid mycorrhiza. Amplification of root fungal DNA with REA-specific and Sebacinaceae-specific primers showed that REA mycobionts were present in some of the screened samples while Sebacinaceae were present in all samples. These results suggest that Gaultheria spp. from NW Patagonia form ericoid mycorrhizae predominantly with the difficult-to-cultivate Sebacinaceae while the incidence of REA is relatively low and may be masked by other most likely non-mycorrhizal cultivable mycobionts.
TL;DR: It is suggested that azoxystrobin and pencycuron do not affect the AMF at threshold concentrations to control R. solani in vitro, while flutolanil impacts the intraradical phase of the fungus.
Abstract: There is growing evidence that the application of biocontrol organisms (e.g., Pseudomonas and Bacillus spp., arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi—AMF) is a feasible option to reduce incidence of plant pathogens in an integrated control strategy. However, the utilization of these microorganisms, in particular AMF, may be threatened by the application of fungicides, a widely-used measure to control Rhizoctonia solani in various crops among which potato. Prior to their application, it is thus important to determine the impact of fungicides on AMF. The present study investigated, under in vitro controlled conditions, the impact of azoxystrobin (a systemic broad-spectrum fungicide), flutolanil (a systemic Basidiomycota-specific fungicide), and pencycuron (a contact Rhizoctonia-specific fungicide) and their respective formulations (Amistar, Monarch, and Monceren) on the growth and development of the AMF Rhizophagus irregularis MUCL 41833 (spore germination, root colonization, extraradical mycelium development, and spore production) at doses used to control R. solani. Results demonstrated that azoxystrobin and its formulation Amistar, at threshold values for R. solani control (estimated by the half maximal inhibitory concentration, IC50, on a dry weight basis), did not affect spore germination and potato root colonization by R. irregularis, while the development of extra-radical mycelium and spore production was reduced at 10 times the threshold value. Flutolanil and its formulation Monarch at threshold value did not affect spore germination or extra-radical development but decreased root colonization and arbuscule formation. At threshold value, pencycuron and its formulation Monceren, did not affect spore germination and intra- or extraradical development of R. irregularis. These results suggest that azoxystrobin and pencycuron do not affect the AMF at threshold concentrations to control R. solani in vitro, while flutolanil (as formulation) impacts the intraradical phase of the fungus. These fungicides and R. irregularis thus have the potential to be used in parallel against Rhizoctonia disease in potato.
TL;DR: This work examined roots of two Mediterranean seagrasses in the northwestern Mediterranean Sea for fungal colonization and found that P. oceanica, but not C. nodosa, is regularly associated with melanized septate hyphae in a manner resembling colonization by the ubiquitous dark sePTate endophytes in roots of most terrestrial plants.
Abstract: Roots of terrestrial plants host a wide spectrum of soil fungi that form various parasitic, neutral and mutualistic associations. A similar trend is evident in freshwater aquatic plants and plants inhabiting salt marshes or mangroves. Marine vascular plants (seagrasses), by contrast, seem to lack specific root–fungus symbioses. We examined roots of two Mediterranean seagrasses, Posidonia oceanica and Cymodocea nodosa, in the northwestern Mediterranean Sea for fungal colonization using light and scanning and transmission electron microscopy. We found that P. oceanica, but not C. nodosa, is regularly associated with melanized septate hyphae in a manner resembling colonization by the ubiquitous dark septate endophytes (DSE) in roots of most terrestrial plants. P. oceanica roots were found to be colonized by sparse dematiaceous running hyphae as well as dense parenchymatous nets/hyphal sheaths on the root surface, intracellular melanized microsclerotia and occasionally also intra- and intercellular hyphae. The colonization was most prominent in the thick-walled hypodermis of the thinnest healthy looking roots, and the mycobiont seemed to colonize both living and dead host cells. Dark septate hyphae infrequently occurred also inside rhizodermal cells, but never colonized vascular tissues. The biological significance of this overlooked marine symbiosis remains unknown, but its morphology, extent, distribution across the NW Mediterranean Sea and absence in C. nodosa indicate an intriguing relationship between the dominant Mediterranean seagrass and its dark septate root mycobionts.
TL;DR: This study uses Coelogyne viscosa as a study system to investigate orchid mycorrhizal fungal communities in lithophytes and epiphytes in Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserve, China, and suggests that for one orchid, growth habitat affects mycorRhizal symbioses.
Abstract: Some orchid species are present as epiphytes and lithophytes in the same habitat, but little is known about the differences of their mycorrhizal fungal communities. We used Coelogyne viscosa, which occurs both as an epiphyte and a lithophyte, as a study system to investigate orchid mycorrhizal fungal communities in lithophytes and epiphytes in Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserve (Yunnan Province, China). Twenty-three fungal operational taxonomic units (OTUs) from 18 sampling sites were identified. Results indicated that mycorrhizal fungal community composition was different between epi- and lithophytes. When we analyzed the Tulasnellaceae and Sebacinales communities separately, we found that the Sebacinales fungal communities were significantly different in the two growth habitats, but the Tulasnellaceae fungal communities were not. Our results provide evidence for distinct orchid mycorrhiza fungal communities depending on the growth habitat of the orchid. Consistent with some recent investigations of mycorrhizal fungus community composition, this study suggests that for one orchid, growth habitat affects mycorrhizal symbioses.
TL;DR: This study indicates the value of comparing numerous taxa based on PFTs and phylogenetic similarity and suggests an uncertain benefit of endophytes in extremely arid environments where plant traits like succulence may obviate the need to establish associations.
Abstract: Since root endophytes may ameliorate drought stress, understanding which plants associate with endophytes is important, especially in arid ecosystems. Here, the root endophytes were characterized of 42 plants from an arid region of Argentina. Colonization by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and dark septate endophytes (DSEs) was related to plant functional type (PFT), family, and phylogenetic relatedness. Overall, three main findings were observed. Firstly, only moderate levels of endophyte associations were found across all taxa (e.g., most Poaceae were not colonized by endophytes despite numerous accounts of colonization by AMF and DSEs). We determined 69 % of plant taxa associated with some form of root endophyte but levels were lower than other regional studies. Secondly, comparisons by PFT and phylogeny were often qualitatively similar (e.g., succulents and Portulacineae consistently lacked AMF; variation occurred among terrestrial vs. epiphytic bromeliads) and often differed from comparisons based on plant family. Thirdly, comparisons by plant family often failed to account for important variation either within families (e.g., Bromeliaceae and Poaceae) or trait conservatism among related families (i.e., Rosidae consistently lacked DSEs and Portulacineae lacked AMF). This study indicates the value of comparing numerous taxa based on PFTs and phylogenetic similarity. Overall, the results suggest an uncertain benefit of endophytes in extremely arid environments where plant traits like succulence may obviate the need to establish associations.
TL;DR: The reasons for such a species-poor community are discussed and the possible role of common mycorrhizal networks linking seagrape seedlings and mature trees in regeneration of coastal forests is discussed.
Abstract: We studied belowground and aboveground diversity and distribution of ectomycorrhizal (EM) fungal species colonizing Coccoloba uvifera (L.) L. (seagrape) mature trees and seedlings naturally regenerating in four littoral forests of the Guadeloupe island (Lesser Antilles). We collected 546 sporocarps, 49 sclerotia, and morphotyped 26,722 root tips from mature trees and seedlings. Seven EM fungal species only were recovered among sporocarps (Cantharellus cinnabarinus, Amanita arenicola, Russula cremeolilacina, Inocybe littoralis, Inocybe xerophytica, Melanogaster sp., and Scleroderma bermudense) and one EM fungal species from sclerotia (Cenococcum geophilum). After internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequencing, the EM root tips fell into 15 EM fungal taxa including 14 basidiomycetes and 1 ascomycete identified. Sporocarp survey only weakly reflected belowground assessment of the EM fungal community, although 5 fruiting species were found on roots. Seagrape seedlings and mature trees had very similar communities of EM fungi, dominated by S. bermudense, R. cremeolilacina, and two Thelephoraceae: shared species represented 93 % of the taxonomic EM fungal diversity and 74 % of the sampled EM root tips. Furthermore, some significant differences were observed between the frequencies of EM fungal taxa on mature trees and seedlings. The EM fungal community composition also varied between the four investigated sites. We discuss the reasons for such a species-poor community and the possible role of common mycorrhizal networks linking seagrape seedlings and mature trees in regeneration of coastal forests.
TL;DR: Comparing cross-talk between fungal and plant partners during formation and establishment of arbuscular and ectomycorrhizal symbioses and the functions of small effector proteins secreted from the respective fungus and taken up into the plant cell may be pivotal in understanding the attenuation of host defense.
Abstract: The availability of genome sequences from both arbuscular and ectomycorrhizal fungi and their hosts has, together with elegant biochemical and molecular biological analyses, provided new information on signal exchange between the partners in mycorrhizal associations. The progress in understanding cellular processes has been more rapid in arbuscular than ectomycorrhizal symbiosis due to its similarities of early processes with Rhizobium-legume symbiosis. In ectomycorrhiza, the role of auxin and ethylene produced by both fungus and host plant is becoming understood at the molecular level, although the actual ligands and receptors leading to ectomycorrhizal symbiosis have not yet been discovered. For both systems, the functions of small effector proteins secreted from the respective fungus and taken up into the plant cell may be pivotal in understanding the attenuation of host defense. We review the subject by comparing cross-talk between fungal and plant partners during formation and establishment of arbuscular and ectomycorrhizal symbioses.
TL;DR: The results suggest that isolates in clade I may represent an important group associated with native populations of A. formosanus and can vary in their ability to establish a symbiotic association with A. formsosanus in diverse ecosystems.
Abstract: The medicinal effects and techniques for cultivating Anoectochilus formosanus are well-documented, but little is known about the mycorrhizal fungi associated with A. formosanus. Rhizoctonia (Thanatephorus) anastomosis group 6 (AG-6) was the most common species isolated from fungal pelotons in native A. formosanus and represented 67 % of the sample. Rhizoctonia (Ceratobasidium) AG-G, P, and R were also isolated and represent the first occurrence in the Orchidaceae. Isolates of AG-6, AG-R, and AG-P in clade I increased seed germination 44–91 % and promoted protocorm growth from phases III to VI compared to asymbiotic treatments and isolates of AG-G in clade II and Tulasnella species in clade III. All isolates in clades I to III formed fungal pelotons in tissue-cultured seedlings of A. formosanus, which exhibited significantly greater growth than nonmycorrhizal seedlings. An analysis of the relative effect of treatment (
$$ {\widehat{p}}_i $$
) showed that the low level of colonization (
$$ {\widehat{p}}_i = 0.30\hbox{--} 0.47 $$
) by isolates in clade I resulted in a significant increase in seedling growth compared to isolates in clades II (0.63–0.82) and III (0.63–0.75). There was also a negative correlation (r = −0.8801) with fresh plant weight and fungal colonization. Our results suggest that isolates in clade I may represent an important group associated with native populations of A. formosanus and can vary in their ability to establish a symbiotic association with A. formosanus. The results presented here are potentially useful for advancing research on the medicinal properties, production, and conservation of A. formosanus in diverse ecosystems.
TL;DR: This study focused on identifying culturable mycorrhizae from epiphytic, lithophytic, and terrestrial orchid taxa to understand their diversity and density in a spatial matrix that is within the protected areas of the Itremo Massif.
Abstract: The Orchid flora of Madagascar is one of the most diverse with nearly 1000 orchid taxa, of which about 90 % are endemic to this biodiversity hotspot. The Itremo Massif in the Central Highlands of Madagascar with a Highland Subtropical climate range encompasses montane grassland, igneous and metamorphic rock outcrops, and gallery and tapia forests. Our study focused on identifying culturable mycorrhizae from epiphytic, lithophytic, and terrestrial orchid taxa to understand their diversity and density in a spatial matrix that is within the protected areas. We have collected both juvenile and mature roots from 41 orchid taxa for isolating their orchid mycorrhizal fungi (OMF), and to culture, identify, and store in liquid nitrogen for future studies. Twelve operational taxonomic units (OTUs), of three known orchid mycorrhizal genera, were recognized by analysis of internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences of 85 isolates, and, by comparing with GenBank database entries, each OTU was shown to have closely related fungi that were also found as orchid associates. Orchid and fungal diversity were greater in gallery forests and open grasslands, which is very significant for future studies and orchid conservation. As far as we know, this is the first ever report of detailed identification of mycorrhizal fungi from Madagascar. This study will help start to develop a programme for identifying fungal symbionts from this unique biodiversity hotspot, which is undergoing rapid ecosystem damage and species loss. The diversity of culturable fungal associates, their density, and distribution within the Itremo orchid hotspot areas will be discussed.
TL;DR: A certain site-dependent variability in AMF spore communities and the ability of Arctic AMF spores to remain viable after a long-term storage in cold conditions are suggested.
Abstract: Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) form probably the most widespread symbiosis on earth and are found across all ecosystems including the Arctic regions. In the Arctic, the prevalent harsh cold conditions experienced by both host plants and fungi may have selected for AMF species with long-surviving spores, the principal means for dispersal and survival. However, basic knowledge about their viability is lacking. AMF spore assembly from two Arctic sites was examined in soil samples collected across an 11-year period and stored at −20 °C for up to 10 years. AMF spore viability and ability to colonize plants were investigated in the greenhouse using Plantago lanceolata. It was predicted that Arctic AMF spores would survive in cold conditions for several years, with an expected decrease in viability over time as suggested by other experiments with temperate material. Results show that even though the two study sites differed in AMF spore density, the relative abundance of spore morphotypes was rather similar across sites and years. Furthermore, spore viability over time was site-dependent as it decreased only in one site. Although spores were viable, only a very small proportion of hosts and roots became colonized in the greenhouse even 21 months after inoculation. Taken together, these results suggest a certain site-dependent variability in AMF spore communities and the ability of Arctic AMF spores to remain viable after a long-term storage in cold conditions. The lack of host colonization in the greenhouse may be related to the inability to overcome spore dormancy under these conditions.
TL;DR: Higher efficiency of native AMF species adapted to calcareous soils opens the way towards the development of mycorrhiza bio-fertilizers targeted to improve sustainable fertilization management in such soils.
Abstract: The efficiency of two mycorrhizal bio-inoculants on the mineral uptake during the growth stages of a Mediterranean forage legume sulla (Hedysarum coronarium L.) was studied in the field on a highly calcareous soil. The first inoculum (Mm) was made up of a mixture of native arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) isolated from calcareous soils: Septoglomus constrictum, Funneliformis geosporum, Glomus fuegianum, Rhizophagus irregularis and Glomus sp. The second was a commercial inoculum (Mi) containing one AMF species: R. irregularis. Both mycorrhizal inoculants increased total and arbuscular colonization of sulla roots. Inoculation with Mm showed a positive effect on sulla shoot dry weight (SDW) when compared to Mi and non-inoculated plants (control). Mineral contents (P, Mg, Mn, Fe) were higher in the shoots of sulla plants cultivated on mycorrhiza-inoculated plots compared to non-inoculated ones. This enhancement was observed during the flowering stage for P, Mg and Mn and during the rosette stage for Fe. An increase in P content of 50 % in plants inoculated with Mm compared to non-inoculated ones may be explained by the induction of root alkaline and acid phosphatase activities. Higher efficiency of native AMF species adapted to calcareous soils opens the way towards the development of mycorrhiza bio-fertilizers targeted to improve sustainable fertilization management in such soils.
TL;DR: Data show a major involvement of edaphic factors, such as available N sources, P, Mg, and K content in soil and soil compaction, in the structuring of the AM fungal communities.
Abstract: Camellia japonica L. is an acidophilic ornamental shrub of high economic value that has its center of origin in Japan and has been introduced in several European environmental niches. This exotic species forms arbuscular mycorrhizas (AM), known for their ability to positively affect plant growth. However, AM fungal communities associated to C. japonica in the field have never been characterized. For the first time, the AM fungal community naturally selected by C. japonica was screened in three sites located on the shores of Lake Maggiore (Italy), where specimens of this plant were introduced in the nineteenth century. Mycorrhizal levels were assessed, and the AM fungal communities associated to roots and soil were molecularly characterized based on the small subunit (SSU) rDNA region. The frequency of mycorrhizal roots was high in all sampled root systems (>90 %). Overall, 39 Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs; 22 Glomerales, 9 Paraglomerales, 7 Archaeosporales, and 1 Diversisporales) were found in the root and soil samples. OTU richness did not significantly differ between the root and the soil niche (5.7 ± 0.6 and 8.0 ± 1.1 average OTUs per sample, respectively) and the three sites analyzed (7.5 ± 0.7, 5.2 ± 1.0, and 7.8 ± 1.5 average OTUs per sample in the three sites, respectively). The AM fungal community composition significantly differed between root-colonizing and soil-dwelling communities and among the three sites under study. Data show a major involvement of edaphic factors, such as available N sources, P, Mg, and K content in soil and soil compaction, in the structuring of the AM fungal communities.
TL;DR: Effective AMF associations that avoid excessive salinity could provide wastewater reuse options, especially when the plants grow in soils, and help to mitigate the negative effects produced by the salinity.
Abstract: Currently, irrigation using recycled water is increasing, especially in semiarid environments, but a potential problem of using reclaimed wastewater is its elevated salt levels. The application of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) could be a suitable option to mitigate the negative effects produced by the salinity. In this work, the combined effect of Glomus iranicum var. tenuihypharum and two types of water: Control, C, with EC <0.9 dS m−1 and reclaimed water (wastewater previously treated in a sewage treatment plant) with EC 4 dS m−1 during a first saline period (11 weeks) and with EC 6 dS m−1 during a second saline period (25 weeks), was evaluated for laurustinus (Viburnum tinus) plants under field conditions. This plant is a popular shrub very used for gardening. Chemical properties of soil as well as physiological behavior, leaf nutrition, and esthetic value of plants were evaluated. Due to the high salinity from wastewater at 6 dS m−1, laurustinus plants decreased their stem water potential values and, to a lesser extent, the stomatal conductance. Also, the visual quality of the plants was diminished. The inoculated AMF satisfactorily colonized the laurustinus roots and enhanced the structure of the soil by increasing the glomalin and carbon contents. Furthermore, G. iranicum var. tenuihypharum inoculation decreased Na and Cl content, stimulated flowering and improved the stem water potential of the plants irrigated with both types of reclaimed water. The AMF also had a positive effect as a consequence of stimulation of plant physiological parameters, such as the stem water potential and stomatal conductance. Effective AMF associations that avoid excessive salinity could provide wastewater reuse options, especially when the plants grow in soils.