Showing papers in "Nature in 1946"

Theory of Games and Economic Behavior

Abstract: THIS book is based on the theory that the economic man attempts to maximize his share of the world's goods and services in the same way that a participant in a game involving many players attempts to maximize his winnings. The authors point out that the maximization of individual wealth is not an ordinary problem in variational calculus, because the individual does not control, and may even be ignorant of, some of the variables. The general theory of social games, in their view, offers a simplified conceptual model of economic behaviour, and a study of that theory can do much to throw light on certain basic concepts of economics, for example, that of utility. Theory of Games and Economic Behavior By John Von Neumann Oskar Morgenstern. Pp. xviii + 625. (Princetown, N.J.: Princetown University Press; London: Sir Humphrey Milford, Oxford University Press, 1944.) 66s. 6d.

Histological demonstration of mucin after periodic acid.

Abstract: THIS note describes the histological demonstration of mucin by Schiff's reagent following the action of periodic acid. Zenker-formol sections were passed to water, after iodine and hypo, and placed for two minutes in a 0.5 per cent solution of periodic acid in distilled water. The sections were then washed in tap and distilled water and placed in Schiff's reagent for fifteen minutes at room temperature. The customary rinsings in sulphurous acid, as for the Feulgen's test, followed, and the sections were dehydrated in alcohols and mounted in balsam after xylene.

The Open Society and its Enemies

Abstract: THIS is a book of great length (444 pages of text), great learning (168 pages of notes), but not of commensurate understanding. It is a pity, because its defects may conceal its undoubted merits. When Dr. Popper is not caricaturing writers whose views he dislikes-and he dislikes a great many-he has a useful contribution to make to political thought, and his general moral theory (mainly to be found in the notes) is eminently sane and sensible. But for his passion for tilting at windmills he would have written a better and shorter book. The Open Society and its Enemies By K. R. Popper. Vol. 1: The Spell of Plato. Pp. vii + 268. Vol. 2: The High Tide of Prophecy—Hegel, Marx and the Aftermath. Pp. v + 352. (London: George Koutledge and Sons, Ltd., 1945.) 2 vols., 42s. net.

Two Anomalies in the Ionosphere

Abstract: DURING the War, many new ionospheric stations were instituted in different parts of the world to serve the operational requirements of the Allied Forces. As a result, there have become available, for the first time, sufficient data to provide a rough general morphological picture of the F2 layer of the ionosphere. A study of these data has disclosed the remarkable result that, although ionospheric events in the E and F1 layers are similarly reproduced at the same local time on the same day at all locations on a line of constant geographic latitude, the same is by no means the case for the F2 layer. It has also been confirmed, as was suspected earlier, that under conditions of symmetrical solar illumination, an asymmetry of ionization exists for certain station on the same longitude and situated at equal latitudes north and south of the equator.

Mathematical Theory Of Elasticity

Abstract: THE appearance of a treatise in English upon the mathematical theory of elasticity is an event the potential importance of which may be judged by the that the author, in his frequent suggestions for collateral reading, refers to only three such, those of Southwell, Timoshenko, and Love. In spirit and content Sokolnikoff}s book differs greatly from each and all of these. It may be described by a possible sub-title: “A pure mathematician surveys topics related to certain problems in the mathematical theory of elasticity”. It is symptomatic of the change in outlook of American mathematics over the past few decades. Mathematical Theory Of Elasticity Prof. I. S. Sokolnikoff with the collaboration of Asst. Prof. R. D. Speche. Pp. xi + 373. (New York and London: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1946.) 22s. 6d.

Gene Recombination in Escherichia coli

Abstract: ANALYSIS of mixed cultures of nutritional mutants has revealed the presence of new types which strongly suggest the occurrence of a sexual process in the bacterium, Escherichia coli.

Faune de France

Abstract: We welcome the appearance of another instalment of the Faune de France series of monographs. The present contribution deals with five small groups of torieoptera which the author regards as constituting separate families. The most important of these are the Bruchidse, which comprise seven genera and sixty-eight species within the faunal limits of France. The Anthribidae are represented by six genera and twenty-one species. The genus Urodon, which has long been attached to this family, is placed by M. Hoffmann in a separate one of its own—the Urodonidae, transitional between the Rhynchophora and Phytophaga. Some modern authorities, it may be added, relegate it to the Bruchidae. Five species of the genus are included in the French fauna. The Brenthidae also come in for consideration. They comprise but a single French species Amorphocephalus coronatus, which lives in association with ants of the genus Camponotus. Finally, a separate family-the Nemonychidae—is erected to replace the tribe Rhinomacerini of the Curculionidae. It is considered transitional in structure between the last-named and the Scolytidae. Three genera, each with a single species, are included within the faunal limits. The work, as a whole, is well up to the standard of its predecessors; it is adequately illustrated, the figures of the species of Anthribidae being particularly effective, and there is the usual compendium of diagnostic keys to the genera and species dealt with. Faune de France 44: Coleopteres Bruchides et Anthribides. Par Adolphe Hoffmann. (Federation francaise des Societes de Sciences naturelles: Office central de faunistique.) Pp. 184. (Paris: Paul Lechevalier et fils, 1945.) 260 francs.

Theory of metals

Abstract: IN several previous papers1 I have developed a statistical model of the metals which gives an account of the metallic bond of the alkali and the alkaline earth metals, and permits the computation of the fundamental constants of these metals without the aid of empirical or semi-empirical parameters. According to this model, the metal is composed of the lattice of the positive metal ions and of a uniformly distributed electron-gas consisting of the negative metal electrons (valency electrons). The lattice energy-from which all further conclusions can be derived in a simple way-is assumed to consist of the energy of the metal electron-gas and the interaction energy between the metal electron-gas and the metal ions. The energy of the metal electron-gas is composed of the electrostatic interaction energy, the exchange energy, the correlation energy and the zero-point kinetic energy of the metal electrons according to Fermi. The interaction energy of the metal electron-gas with the metal ions can be divided into three parts: first, the electrostatic interaction energy ; secondly, the increase of the kinetic energy as a consequence of the penetration of the metal electron-gas into the electron clouds of the ions ; and thirdly, the energy resulting from the exchange interaction* between the metal electrons and the core electrons.

The Creative Mind

Abstract: THE innocent inquirer picking up this book might be led to expect new light on Bergson's philosophy. He would be disappointed. It a translation of a collection of essays published in France in 1934 under the title “La Pensee et le Mouvant”. The present publishers do not mention this fact, nor do they explain the change in title. As the author tells us in his preface and notes, the seven essays that form two thirds of the book were first published between 1903 and 1923, and the long introduction that forms the rest was completed by 1922 except for a few pages on physical theory added ten years later. The Creative Mind By Henri Bergson. Translated by Mabelle L. Andison. Pp. 307. (New York: Philosophical Library, Inc., 1946.) 3.75 dollars.

Structural Inorganic Chemistry

Abstract: SINCE the first studies of crystal structures were made by the Braggs in 1913, there has been an ever-increasing flow of structure analyses carried out, first by the X-ray method alone, and later in addition by other techniques. For some time, while investigators-largely physicists-were exploring the possibilities of the new science and establishing the sound basis of technique without which the achievements of later times would not have been possible, the choice of substances for study was, from the point of view of the chemist, mineralogist or metallurgist, with notable exceptions, determined largely by fortuitous circumstances. In the years immediately preceding the Second World War, however, a growing majority of structural investigations were clearly undertaken, if not as integral parts of chemical or other researches, at least with the aim of extending knowledge of specific chemical topics rather than as ends in themselves ; while, equally important, a large proportion of chemists had learnt to appreciate the significance of structure analysis and were influenced by its results in their attitude to teaching and research. One outcome of this mutual interaction between structure analysis and the older sciences has been the appearance of various monographs, and, to a lesser extent, the adoption of a new 'slant' in the treatment of old subjects in less specialized works; but it was probably true to say that no text-book of inorganic chemistry showed a complete assimilation of the results and implications of the new subject. Structural Inorganic Chemistry By Dr. A. F. Wells. Pp. viii + 590. (Oxford: Clarendon Press; London: Oxford University Press, 1945.) 25s. net.

Histochemical Demonstration of Acid Polysaccharides in Animal Tissues

Abstract: RECENT work on the acid polysaccharides occurring in the animal body and on enzymes, such as hyaluronldase, which hydrolyse them, has emphasized the need for more specific methods for their histological demonstration.

The coefficient of variation.

Abstract: TEXT-BOOKS of statistics generally cite the coefficient of variation (or variability) as a measure of relative variability. While the coefficient (abbreviated to CV) is usually defined by the equation CV = 100/AM (which is the form to which these notes refer), the more general definition is of a specified measure of dispersion expressed as a percentage of some appropriate measure of central location. Simpson and Rowe1 give a list of seven formulae which by no means exhausts the logical possibilities.

Wave Propagation in Periodic Structures

Abstract: THIS book deals not with a special branch of physical science but with a general method and its applications to different problems. Its striking feature is the number and variety of subjects which are accessible to the same mathematical treatment: on one side problems of pure physics, like scattering of X-rays by crystals, thermal vibrations in crystal lattices electronic motion in metals, and on the other side problems of electric engineering, namely, propagation of electro-magnetic waves along periodic circuits and filtering properties of such systems. Wave Propagation in Periodic Structures Electric Filters and Crystal Lattices. By Prof. Leon Brillouin. (International Series in Pure and Applied Physics.) Pp. xii + 247. (New York and London: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1946.) 20s.

The Ecological Niche

Abstract: A SUPERB example illustrating the ecological niche is afforded by the distribution of the plankton copepod Limnocalanus macrurus, a freshwater relict derived from the marine arctic species L. Grimaldii. The animal has an upper temperature limit of 14° C, and a lower limit of dissolved oxygen of 4 c.c./l. oxygen. In the lowland lakes beyond the arctic region it will therefore during summer stagnation live between the upper waters which are too warm and the lower waters which are too depleted of oxygen.

Chemical production of mutations.

Abstract: IN a previous letter in Nature1, chemical substances were mentioned which are as effective as X-rays in inducing mutations and chromosome rearrangements. The chemical nature of the main substance used can now be stated. It is dichloro-diethyl-sulphide, or mustard gas. Three other substances of similar efficiency were found, all of them chemically related to mustard gas. Lewisite, on the other hand, gave negative results. The results were first described in a report sent to the Ministry of Supply on March 14, 1942.

Application of the paper partition chromatogram to the qualitative analysis of reducing sugars.

Abstract: GORDON, MARTIN AND SYNGE1 and Consden, Gordon and Martin2 have shown that good separations of amino-acids can be obtained on filter paper by allowing a suitable solvent, which has previously been saturated with water, to flow over the paper in a closed container, the air in which is saturated with the vapours of water and the solvent. Filter paper contains 20–25 per cent water under these conditions, and separation depends upon the differences in partition coefficient of the amino-acids between the stationary water phase and the moving solvent. It has further been shown2 that for any individual amino-acid the value

A Theory of Chromospheric Flares

Abstract: IT has been established from observation that chromospheric flares are closely associated with sunspots, and that the probability of a flare occurring near a spot ncreases with the size of the latter. The probability is higher when the group is increasing its size than when it is stationary, and it is also higher for magnetically complex βγ and γ-groups than for the simpler α- and β-type groups1. The flares themselves are short-lived phenomena, of mean life about thirty minutes, and are quite localized. It is generally accepted that they show no velocity either in height or across the surface of the sun.

Influence of Retardation on the London–van der Waals Forces

Abstract: IN the course of his work on the stability of colloidal solutions, in which the attraction between the particles is ascribed exclusively to London—van der Waals forces, the repulsion being due to the interaction of electric double layers, Overbeek arrived at the conclusion that in order to account for the stability of suspensions of comparatively large particles, it is necessary to assume that for long distances the London—van der Waals energy decreases more rapidly than R-6; and he pointed out that as soon as the distance becomes comparable to the wave-length corresponding to the excitation energies of the interacting atoms, the retardation of the electrostatic interaction between these atoms can no longer be neglected and will presumably lead to a decrease of the attractive force. Following Overbeek's suggestion, we have studied in detail the influence of retardation on the mutual attraction of two neutral atoms. As is well known, the usual expression for the London force is found by calculating the second order perturbation energy due to the interaction:

Anomalous High-frequency Resistance of Ferromagnetic Metals

Abstract: THE energy lost by a high-frequency current flowing in a conductor is dependent on the product of the electrical resistivity μ and the magnetic permeability μ of the conductor, and this fact has been used by several investigators1,2,3 to determine the effective permeability of ferromagnetic metals at high frequencies.

Advances in Protein Chemistry

Abstract: THE structure of proteins is probably the most Jvumpapant and possibly the most difficult of the maflpr uifeolved problems of chemistry, at least for the immediate future, and coming at a time when preparations are being made in numerous places to storm this citadel, the present volume is very timely since it gives clear reviews of many of the new methods which will be employed. It reflects the present trend of protein research towards exact analysis and what one might call the ‘classical’ organic approach to the problem. The X-ray method has clear possibilities, but they are more limited and at the same time involve greater difficulties than was originally expected. In his excellent survey of this field, I. Fankuchen sums up the position with regard to crystalline proteins as follows. “Single protein crystals can be made to yield exceedingly detailed X-ray diagrams and yet one must admit that to date the results of such single crystal studies have been disappointing; disappointing because very beautiful and complete data have so far only yielded comparatively meagre results”—a conclusion which broadly coincides with the views expressed in the discussion at the Roentgen celebration in London. It appears that although we can expect definite information about the number and arrangement of protein molecules in the unit cell, a complete structure analysis lies in the distant future; perhaps not a surprising situation when one contemplates the empirical formula recently given by Brand and his co-workers for lactoglobulin, one of the few cases in which the analyses approach finality, namely, C1864 H3012 N468 S21 O576, or particularizing the amino-324 acids by easily recognisable abbreviations, as follows: Gly8 Ala29 Val21 Leu50 Ileu27 Pro15 Phe9 CySH4 (CyS)8 Met9 Try4 Arg7 His4 Lys33 Asp36 Glu24 (Glu-NH2)32 Ser20 Thr21 Tyr9 H2O4! It might perhaps not unfairly be said that the chief contribution of the X-ray studies has been to demand and stimulate more accurate analyses. Advances in Protein Chemistry Edited by M. L. Anson John T. Edsall. Vol. 2. Pp. xiii + 443. (New York: Academic Press, Inc., 1945.) 6.50 dollars

The Three Coefficients of Viscosity of Anisotropic Liquids

Abstract: BEFORE and during the War, investigations were reported on the viscosity of anisotropic liquids1,2,3,4. As is well known, the flow of an anisotropic liquid influences the orientation of the molecules. On the other hand, the value of the viscosity coefficient depends on this orientation. Therefore this coefficient is a function of the velocity-gradient, and the usual definition of the viscosity coefficient for these liquids loses its significance. If under the influence of any factor the molecules of the liquid should be orientated in one direction and the motion is unable to change this orientation, then we have the viscosity coefficient in the ordinary sense. But in this case we have to deal with the anisotropy of the viscosity, and in case of a liquid of the type of p-azoxyanisol we have three principal viscosity coefficients belonging to the three directions of orientation ; these are : (1) direction of the flow ; (2) direction of the velocity gradient ; (3) perpendicular to both these directions. Having given the molecules an orientation by means of a magnetic field in such circumstances that the flow did not change this orientation, I obtained the following values for the three principal viscosity coefficients for p-azoxyanisol and p-azoxyphenetol2.

Grain Boundaries in Metals

Abstract: ACCORDING to the transition lattice theory, since in pure metals and single-phase alloys the only difference between the two grains which meet at a boundary is one of direction, the atoms at the boundary take up positions representing a compromise between the two crystal lattice directions. There thus exists a region, a few atomic diameters in thickness, over which a state of disorder exists, the extent of which will be expected to depend upon the relative orientation of the two lattices; there will exist angles for which this disorder is a minimum, an obvious example being the twinning angle. In addition, the direction of the boundary itself relative to the grains would be expected to produce an effect. Lateral misalignment of crystal planes would also be expected to produce ‘lack of fit’ at the grain boundaries, but this effect is most probably smoothed out by the imperfections in the crystal structure. It would be expected, therefore, that any phenomenon depending upon the degree of disorder existing at the boundary would vary in magnitude according to the relative orientations of the grains meeting at the boundary, and with position in the boundary between two given crystal grains if the boundary changed in direction. It is reasonable to suppose that where precipitation of a second phase occurs from the supersaturated solid solution, it occurs more readily in those regions where disorder is greatest, and it would, therefore, be expected that grain boundary precipitation would vary in this manner.

Surface area determination.

Abstract: IN the determination of surface area using nitrogen at the temperature of liquid nitrogen by the method of Brunauer, Emmett and Teller1, it is usual to determine the dead-space on each sample, using helium. For routine determinations on a substance known to give S-shaped isotherms, that is, where the equation of Brunauer, Emmett and Teller is applicable, it is possible to avoid this dead-space determination. If V1 c.c. nitrogen are adsorbed at a pressure p1, then the dead-space is given by where D is dead-space at unit pressure and a is a correction factor equal to 6.58 × 10- 5 at unit pressure. Hence, if Vc1 is volume of nitrogen in the sample bulb, then It follows that

Vitamins and Hormones

Abstract: THE third volume in the series vitamins and hormones amply maintains the standard set by its pietetfssors. As the editors say in their preface, “The object matter of successive volumes will integrate more and more until ‘Vitamins and Hormones’ eventually becomes a complete reference to all active research in the vitamin and hormone field”. The authors of the series of chapters are well chosen, and with few exceptions a high standard is maintained in each. Microbiological aspects of vitamins are discussed by Najjar and Barrett, in a chapter on the synthesis of B vitamins by intestinal bacteria, who summarize a subject of much topical interest; an article 120 pages in length (including 456 references) by B. C. J. Knight is an exhaustive review of growth factors in microbiology; amino-acids, purines, pyrimidines and naphthoquinones are discussed as well as the vitamin B complex. The threads of knowledge upon the interrelation of vitamins have been brought together by T. Moore in a suggestive article, and the influence of sulphonamides in experimental diets upon bacterial synthesis of vitamins discussed by Daft and Sebrell. Vitamins and Hormones Advances in Research and Applications, Vol. 3. Edited By Prof. R. S. Harris Prof. Kenneth V. Thimann. Pp. xv + 420. (New York: Academic Press Inc., 1945. 6.50 dollars.

Flora of egypt

Abstract: THAT Egypt is 'the gift of the Nile' may be true from the point of view of human civilization but such a phrase would be misleading if applied to the plant-life of the country. Even the weed flora of the canals and cultivated land is not uniform, and to this must be added the ephemeral flora of the deserts, and the mountains and mountain valleys of Sinai and the Elba mountains. Many botanists have explored Egypt and much has been published regarding both the wild and cultivated flora. However, the need for an accurate and up-to-date taxonomic account cannot be gainsaid, and the present work* by Mrs. Tackholm and the late Prof. G. Tackholm is intended to meet this need.

The Chemical Senses

Abstract: IN four hundred pages, Mr. Moncrieff has collected together most of the factual knowledge related to the sensations of taste and smell, and, for good measure, has summarized the many theories which have, from time to time, been advanced to account for these and their related phenomena. That such a volume must savour of 'compilation' is inevitable ; and to say from a single reading of this book, packed as it is with data of all kinds, that it is difficult to obtain a clear view of the subject is no serious criticism of the author ; indeed, he has been at pains to miss no single topic, and has chronicled everything from the cash value of ambergris to the nature of Raman spectra. The Chemical Senses By R. W. Moncrieff. Pp. vii + 424. (London: Leonard Hill, Ltd., 1944.) 25s.

Biochemical research on chemical warfare agents.

Abstract: THE fundamental mechanisms by which poison gases produce their effects, involving as they do the action of chemical substances on living tissues, are prinftrily a matter for investigation by the biochemist, For some time past the belief has been growylg that many, if not most, poisons act by attacking one or more of the essential intracellular enzymes, thus producing what Peters has termed a ‘biochemical lesion’; the actual damage observed is a consequence of the resulting metabolic disturbances.

Analysis of the electrical response of the human cortex to photic stimulation.

Abstract: IN 1934, Adrian and Matthews1 showed that rhythmic electrical potential changes could be recorded from the occiput in man when the subject's eyes were illuminated by a bright flickering light. These electrical rhythms were shown to be generated by the visual projection areas of the brain, and their relation to the spontaneous ‘alpha rhythms’ of the human electro-encephalogram, which they sometimes resemble, has often been discussed.

Fluctuations in cosmic radiation at radio-frequencies.

Abstract: In a previous publication1 we described the results of an investigation into the spatial distribution of cosmic electromagnetic noise radiation at 5 metres wave-length. We have recently been engaged in an attempt to make a more detailed determination by using a more sensitive receiver of narrower beam-width. An interesting new feature which has emerged from these latter experiments is the occurrence of short - period irregular fluctuations which have been found to be associated with the direction of Cygnus. This region, which is a secondary peak in the cosmic noise distribution, appears to be unique in being char¬acterized by short-period variations of marked amplitude in the intensity of power flux.

Infra-Red and Raman Spectra of Polyatomic Molecules

Abstract: IT is now becoming more widely realized that infrared spectroscopy has grown into a powerful new method for analysis and structural diagnosis, and as such it must be used by many who have hitherto had little knowledge of either the relevant theory or the experimental technique. To this extent any new book on the subject will be studied with interest. Prof. Herzberg's new monograph on polyatomic molecules, like that on diatomic molecules preceding it, is an admirable one. It is important, however, to understand just what this book sets out to cover, since in spite of its very great value it cannot, taken alone, be regarded as a manual for new workers in the field. Infra-Red and Raman Spectra of Polyatomic Molecules By Prof. Gerhard Herzberg. (Molecular Spectra and Molecular Structure, Vol. 2.) Pp. xiii + 632. (New York: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1945.) 9.50 dollars.