Showing papers in "Ndt & E International in 2011"

Generating and detecting torsional guided waves using magnetostrictive sensors of crossed coils

Abstract: In this work, we propose a crossed-coil magnetostrictive sensor consisting of a solenoid coil, a toroidal coil, and a ferromagnetic patch for generating and detecting torsional waves for pipe inspection. We show that the direction of the magnetic field of the ferromagnetic patch can be controlled by adjusting the input current to the toroidal coil. In addition, it is found that the amplitudes of the signals reflected from the pipe end using a crossed-coil sensor are much larger than those using pre-magnetization techniques, and excitation energies are used to generate the torsional waves only. From results on pipes with multiple circumferential notches, any defects larger in diameter than three times the pipe thickness were detected using the crossed-coil magnetostrictive sensor.

The sources of heat generation in vibrothermography

Abstract: Vibrothermography, or sonic IR, is a nondestructive evaluation technique used to find surface and near surface defects—such as cracks and delaminations—through observations of vibration-induced heat generation. This method has significant interest as an industrial inspection method, however, a lack of understanding of the fundamental physics governing the heat generation process has limited its application despite extensive theoretical, numerical simulation, and experimental work. Significant theoretical and numerical simulation work has been performed, but has yet to be rigorously verified experimentally. This paper presents experimental verification of the sources of heat generation in vibrothermography; specifically friction, plasticity, and viscoelasticity. Specific experimental evidence is presented that verifies each of these heat-generating mechanisms.

A comparison of the pulsed, lock-in and frequency modulated thermography nondestructive evaluation techniques

Abstract: Pulsed, lock-in and frequency modulated thermography are three alternative nondestructive evaluation techniques. The defect imaging performance of these techniques are compared using: matched excitation energy; the same carbon fiber composite test piece and infrared camera system. The lock-in technique suffers from “blind frequencies” at which phase images for some defects disappear. It is shown that this problem can be overcome by using frequency modulated (chirp) excitation and an image fusion algorithm is presented that enhance phase imaging of defects. The signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs) of defect images obtained by the three techniques are presented. For the shallowest defects (depths 0.25 and 0.5 mm, 6 mm diameter), the pulsed technique exhibits the highest SNRs. For deeper defects the SNRs of the three techniques are similar in magnitude under matched excitation energy condition.

Crack imaging by scanning pulsed laser spot thermography

Abstract: A new crack imaging technique is presented that is based on second derivative image processing of thermal images of laser heated spots. Experimental results are shown that compare well with those obtained by the dye penetrant inspection method. A 3D simulation has been developed to simulate heat flow from a laser heated spot in the proximity of a crack. A ‘ghost point’ method has been used to deal efficiently with cracks having openings in the micometre range. Results are presented showing the effects of crack geometry and system parameters on thermal images of laser heated spots.

Pulsed eddy current imaging and frequency spectrum analysis for hidden defect nondestructive testing and evaluation

Abstract: Hidden defect characterisation in some complex structures is difficult. Pulsed Eddy Current (PEC) imaging based on rectangular excitation coil is investigated in this paper and hidden defect nondestructive testing and evaluation (detection, classification, and quantification) is carried out based on the various C-scan images. Experimental results have illustrated that hidden defects can be identified effectively by particular character in C-scan imaging results and sub-surface defects can be discriminated to correct class by selecting the rising time from response in time domain. The quantification information of hidden defects is preliminarily obtained based on the contour and 3D images. In addition, PEC imaging and frequency spectrum analysis are effective to detect, classify, and evaluate the sub-surface defects under the influence of edge effect of specimen. To sum up, PEC imaging is an effective approach to characterise hidden defects and sub-surface defects.

Damage detection in concrete using coda wave interferometry

Abstract: Coda wave interferometry (CWI) is a nondestructive evaluation technique for monitoring wave velocity changes in a strongly heterogeneous medium as demonstrated in previous seismic and acoustic experiments. The multiple-scattering effect in such a medium promotes the rapid formation of a diffuse field, and waves can travel much longer than the direct path, and thus are more sensitive to small changes occurring in the medium. This research applies the CWI technique in conjunction with acoustoelastic measurements to characterize two different types of damage in concrete: damage due to thermal shock and dynamic cyclic loading. The diffuse ultrasonic signals are taken at different levels of compressive stress and then relative velocity changes are extracted using the CWI technique. The relative velocity change (or the material nonlinearity) increases considerably with increasing damage level in most samples for both types of damage. The feasibility and sensitivity of this CWI-based technique in characterizing damage in cement-based materials are demonstrated.

PEC thermography for imaging multiple cracks from rolling contact fatigue

Abstract: With the development and operation of high speed trains, condition based maintenance becomes an important approach for the improvement of reliability and safety of rail transportation. This paper reports a feasibility study using pulsed eddy current thermography for imaging multiple cracks caused by rolling contact fatigue (RCF). After reviewing rail track inspection and RCF cracks, a PEC thermography system is introduced and applied to the imaging of multiple rolling contact fatigue cracks. Potential on-line inspection for rail track is also discussed.

Experimental study of nonlinear Rayleigh wave propagation in shot-peened aluminum plates—Feasibility of measuring residual stress

Abstract: Shot-peening is widely used in the aerospace industry to enhance the resistance of structural components to fatigue damage and stress corrosion by putting the outside layer of a component under an initial, residual compressive stress. The ability to measure these near-surface residual stresses is useful from a quality control and certification perspective, and can help predict the fatigue life of shot-peened components. This paper presents experimental results to examine the feasibility of measuring near-surface residual stresses using nonlinear Rayleigh surface waves. Experiments are conducted on aluminum alloy (AA 7075) samples shot-peened at different peening intensities and thus with different levels of residual stresses. The surface roughness of these samples is also measured. The nonlinear ultrasonic results show a large increase in the acoustic nonlinearity parameter, indicating the potential of nonlinear ultrasonics for the in situ measurement of near-surface residual stresses. The effects of surface roughness and the driving frequency on the measured acoustic nonlinearity parameter are briefly discussed. Finally, a preliminary model is used to interpret some experimental results. Future work to evaluate the separate contributions of cold work, residual stress and surface roughness to the total measured nonlinearity is also discussed.

Impedance based damage detection under varying temperature and loading conditions

Abstract: The impedance based damage detection technique utilizing piezoelectric materials has become a promising and attractive tool for structural health monitoring due to its high sensitivity to small local damage. However, impedance signals are also sensitive to time-varying environmental and operational conditions, and these ambient variations can often cause false-alarms. In this study, a data normalization technique using Kernel principal component analysis (KPCA) is developed to improve damage detectability under varying temperature and external loading conditions and to minimize false-alarms due to these variations. The proposed technique is used to detect bolt loosening within a metal fitting lug, which connects a composite aircraft wing to a fuselage. Model and full-scale tests are performed under realistic temperature and loading variations to validate the proposed technique. The uniqueness of this paper lies in that (1) a data normalization technique tailored for impedance based damage detection has been developed (2) multiple environmental parameters, such as temperature and static/dynamic loading are considered simultaneously for data normalization and (3) the effectiveness of the proposed technique is examined using data collected from a full-scale composite wing specimen with a complex geometry.

Structural dynamic displacement vision system using digital image processing

Abstract: This study introduces dynamic displacement vision system (DDVS), which is applicable for imaging unapproachable structures using a hand-held digital video camcorder and is more economical than the existing contact and contactless measurement methods of dynamic displacement and deformation. This proposed DDVS method is applied to the Region of Interest (ROI) resizing and coefficient updating at each time step to improve the accuracy of the measurement from the digital image. Thus, after evaluating the algorithms conducted in this study by the static and dynamic verification, the measurement's usability by calculating the dynamic displacement of the masonry specimen, and the two-story steel frame specimen is evaluated under uniaxial seismic loading. The algorithm of the proposed method in this study, despite the relatively low resolution during frozen, slow, and seismic motions, has precision and usability that can replace the existing displacement transducer. Moreover, the method can be effectively applied to even fast behavior for multi-measurement positions like the seismic simulation test using large scale specimen. DDVS, using the consecutive images of the structures with an economic, hand-held digital video camcorder is a more economical displacement sensing concept than the existing contact and contactless measurement methods.

Characterization of ASR damage in concrete using nonlinear impact resonance acoustic spectroscopy technique

Abstract: This research reports on a successful application of the nonlinear impact resonance acoustic spectroscopy (NIRAS) technique for the characterization of progressive damage in standard concrete specimens Damage in the specimens is introduced, following ASTM C 1293 testing procedures, through the deleterious alkali–silica reaction (ASR), which leads to the formation of a gel-like reaction product, microcracks, and interfacial debonding between cement and aggregate phases The microcracks and debonded interfaces act to increase the nonlinearity of concrete The response of the specimen to impact loading is analyzed to obtain a nonlinearity parameter, which is used as a measure of damage Measurements are performed on concrete prisms undergoing the ASTM C 1293 expansion test; three aggregates with varying reactivity are examined The results from the expansion test are compared with those from the NIRAS measurements For potentially reactive aggregate, the NIRAS technique offers a more definitive assessment of the damage state of the specimen and can be used to distinguish marginally reactive aggregates The NIRAS results not only demonstrate a clear distinction between nonreactive and reactive aggregates using the nonlinearity parameter, but also the capability to quantitatively track ASR-induced damage in concrete, potentially forming the foundation for field assessment and monitoring

Development and validation for in situ asphalt mixture density prediction models

Abstract: In situ asphalt mixture density is an important quality property of flexible pavements. A previous study introduced the potential of ground penetrating radar (GPR) to estimate in situ asphalt mixture density continuously, rapidly, and nondestructively. Three density prediction models were developed based on the relationship between the asphaltic mixture volumetric characteristics and the components' dielectric constants. In this study, a full-scale test site was carefully designed and constructed for the model validation. Five different mixes were placed in the test site, and each was compacted at four density levels. Both GPR data and cores were collected from the test site to validate the performance of the density models developed in the previous study. The validation results indicated that all three models provided reasonably accurate predictions with errors in the range of 2.2–2.8%, and the modified Bottcher model (Al-Qadi, Lahouar and Leng (ALL) model) performed the best. In addition, the authors provided the appropriate algorithm for predicting in situ asphalt mixture density through a GPR survey.

Ultrasonic Lamb wave based monitoring of corrosion type of damage in plate using a circular array of piezoelectric transducers

Abstract: In this paper we propose a concept and report experimental results based on a circular array of Piezoelectric Wafer Active Sensors (PWASs) for rapid localization and parametric identification of corrosion type damage in metallic plates. Implementation of this circular array of PWASs combines the use of ultrasonic Lamb wave propagation technique and an algorithm based on symmetry breaking in the signal pattern to locate and monitor the growth of a corrosion pit on a metallic plate. Wavelet time-frequency maps of the sensor signals are employed to obtain an insight regarding the effect of corrosion growth on the Lamb wave transmission in time-frequency scale. We present here a method to eliminate the time scale, which helps in identifying easily the signature of damage in the measured signals. The proposed method becomes useful in determining the approximate location of the damage with respect to the location of three neighboring sensors in the circular array. A cumulative damage index is computed from the wavelet coefficients for varying damage sizes and the results appear promising. Damage index is plotted against the damage parameters for frequency sweep of the excitation signal (a windowed sine signal). Results of corrosion damage are compared with circular holes of various sizes to demonstrate the applicability of present method to different types of damage. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Thermographic detection of surface breaking defects using a scanning laser source

Abstract: Surface breaking defects are detected using a scanning laser source to deposit heat into a sample surface. Any lateral flow of heat is disturbed by such a defect, with a change in thermal spot shape being detected by an infrared camera. An apparent increase in temperature as the laser passes over a defect is due to a localised change in emissivity, allowing defects to be distinguished from surface markings. Defects have been detected in both stainless steel and aluminium.

Using ground penetrating radar and time–frequency analysis to characterize construction materials

Abstract: For decades, applications of nondestructive evaluation-civil engineering (NDE-CE) focus on object identifications (such as steel bars, tendon ducts and backwall reflections) in infrastructures. Because of the advantage of efficient visualization of internal structure, utilization of these methods can probably be extended to material characterization (MC) of aging and adversely exposed infrastructures. However, two factors yield a big gap between NDE and MC. First, for the ease of visualization, the primary focus of NDE-signal processing is object identification, which usually alters the originality of the signal. Second, there is lack of relationship and inverse models bridging the NDE-derived and conventional material properties compared to other disciplines of science, such as geophysics. These disadvantages make laboratory and field-scale NDE-MC still a far-reaching holy grail and is possibly the greatest hurdle to be regularly adopted in CE structures. This paper attempts to address this gap from object identification to MC using ground penetrating radar (GPR) as one of the most frequently used NDE-CE methods, and signal processing with joint time–frequency domain (JTFA) analysis. Three examples of material property characterization regarding the individual effects of steel bar corrosion in concrete, hydration and moisture content distribution of construction materials are given.

Monitoring of corrosion in reinforced concrete structure using Bragg grating sensing

Abstract: Corrosion in reinforced concrete structures is a major problem that seriously affects the service life of the structures. In order to detect rebar corrosion, a fiber optic corrosion sensor (FOCS) made of one fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensor and twin steel rebar elements was designed and packaged up with concrete. Subsequently, a series of experiments were carried out to verify its feasibility. A constant current accelerated corrosion test was performed on five fiber optic corrosion sensors and the relationship between reflected wavelength change from the grating and the weight loss rate of rebar was obtained by the gravimetric weight loss method. The experiment shows that it is feasible to monitor the degree of corrosion of reinforced steel in reinforced concrete structures using FOCS.

Experimental study of thermal degradation in ferritic Cr-Ni alloy steel plates using nonlinear Lamb waves

Abstract: The thermal degradation in ferritic Cr–Ni alloy steel plates is measured using the nonlinear effect of Lamb wave propagation. Experiments were carried out to introduce controlled levels of thermal damage to determine the nonlinear response of Lamb waves. A “mountain-shape” change in the normalized acoustic nonlinearity of Lamb wave versus the level of thermal degradation in the specimens has been observed. The variation in the measured acoustic nonlinearity reveals, based on metallographic studies, that the normalized acoustic nonlinearity increases due to the second phase precipitates in the early stage and it decreases as a combined result of dislocation change and micro-void initiation in the material. The results show a potential application of the nonlinear Lamb waves for the quantitative assessment of thermal damage in metallic plates or pipes.

Impedance-based wireless debonding condition monitoring of CFRP laminated concrete structures

Abstract: Carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) laminated concrete structures are used widely in a range of engineering fields because of their many advantages. However they always carry the risk of structural collapse initiated from the debonding conditions that might occur between the CFRP and concrete surface. This study employed an electro-mechanical impedance-based wireless structural health monitoring (SHM) technique by applying PZT ceramic patches to identify the debonding conditions of a CFRP laminated reinforced concrete beam. In the experimental study, the CFRP-reinforced concrete specimens were fabricated and the impedance signals were measured from the wireless impedance sensor node according to the different debonding conditions between the concrete and CFRP. Cross correlation (CC)-based data analysis was conducted to quantify the changes in impedance measured at the PZT patches due to the debonding conditions. The results confirmed that an impedance-based wireless SHM technique can be used effectively for monitoring the debonding of CFRP laminated concrete structures.

Active thermography as a quantitative method for non-destructive evaluation of porous carbon fiber reinforced polymers

Abstract: In this work active thermography was successfully applied as a quantitative method for the non-destructive evaluation of porosity in carbon fiber reinforced polymers. Results showed that not only the level of porosity, but also the shape of the pores strongly influences the active thermography results, in particular the measured thermal diffusivity. In an experiment the shape of the pores was obtained by means of X-ray computed tomography. Based on this microstructural information, the “dethermalization theory” can be deduced as the most effective thermal diffusivity model with respect to quantitative porosity determination. Furthermore, the obtained experimental data on active thermography correspond to measurements made using ultrasonic testing with respect to the influence of pore shapes.

The reflection of the fundamental torsional guided wave from multiple circular holes in pipes

Abstract: Localised corrosion is a major concern in the petrochemical industry, and often occurs as clusters of pits. A study of the reflection from two and three small circular holes in pipes with the fundamental torsional guided wave incident is presented. FE analyses with both part and through thickness holes at different relative positions are presented, and are a step towards estimation of the scattering behaviour of multiple and random defects. The validity of employing the superposition technique in estimating reflection coefficients is assessed. Results show that the reflection coefficient for the T (0,1) mode is dependent on absolute frequency and axial separation, and independent of circumferential position. Employing superposition is found to be valid down to defect centre to centre separation distances of two diameters in the worst case, with improved validity with shallower defects. Results from the FE analyses are validated experimentally.

Calculation of propagation properties of Lamb waves in a functionally graded material (FGM) plate by power series technique

Abstract: To investigate the propagation behavior of Lamb waves in a thermal stress relaxation type functionally graded material (FGM) plate with material parameters that vary continuously along the thickness, the power series technique, which has been proved to have good convergence and high precision, is employed for theoretical derivations. The influence of the gradient coefficients of FGM on the dispersion curves is illustrated. The numerical results also reveal differences between the properties of Lamb wave propagation in the FGM plate and the corresponding properties in a homogenous plate. In terms of results, we find that both the normal and anomalous dispersions exist in the first and the second modes of the Lamb wave that propagates in the FGM plate, while only the anomalous dispersion is in the first mode and only the normal dispersion is in the second mode for the homogenous plate. The wave structure is asymmetric due to the asymmetric properties of the material. The dominance of in-plane and out-plane displacements is different between the metal-rich and ceramic-rich surfaces. All these results give theoretical guidance not only for experimental measurement of material properties but also for nondestructive evaluation using an ultrasonic wave generation device.

Metal magnetic memory testing of welded joints of ferritic and austenitic steels

Abstract: The method of the metal magnetic memory testing is a passive method of non-destructive testing based on the residual magnetic field (RMF) of a component. It allows the localization of stress concentration zones in the objects under examination. The defects in welded joints are places of stress concentration. Also, due to the geometric notch effect and thermal deformations after welding, the welded joint is a stress concentrator. Therefore, not all indications obtained in the method of the MMM testing are defects in the common, standard meaning. Additionally, in the weld seams of austenitic steels, the non-uniformity of delta ferrite in the joint results in changes in the RMF distribution and gives rise to indications. The paper presents the ways of examination and assessment of welded joints by means of the method of the MMM testing. The presented research methodology is the outcome of a synthesis of own experience and the provisions of standards ISO 24497-1, 2, 3: 2007. The results obtained in the MMM testing were compared to the results of the radiographic testing (RT). It was found that the MMM testing allowed the detection of imperfections, including defects, in welded joints at the production stage. Knowing the potential of the method of the MMM testing it seems well justified that it should be used in the examination of welded joints at the operation stage. These joints, after non-destructive testing at the production stage, are not free from defects. The defects, together with imperfections at the micro-level, concentrate stresses from working loads. Wear processes and the development of micro- and macro-cracks proceed in them the fastest. By finding the stress concentration zones, the areas of potential cracks can be found. The development of reliable procedures of examination and assessment of welded joints with the use of the method of the metal magnetic memory testing still needs a lot of research.

Tomographic reconstruction for concrete using attenuation of ultrasound

Abstract: The development of attenuation tomography for concrete is discussed. Fundamental ultrasonic measurements of cubic specimens and numerical simulations of wave motion were conducted to examine the decay in amplitude of ultrasound when impinged by defect, and compare its sensitivity to the delay in travel time. An algorithm was then developed to facilitate simultaneous tracing and distribution of amplitude factor in a three-dimensional model by iterative computation. The algorithm was used for reconstruction of attenuation tomographic for visualizing concrete interior. Experimental results indicated successful identification for the location of a defect that was embedded in concrete, thus implying the potential of attenuation tomography as a complementary method to the travel time tomography to enhance soundness evaluation of concrete.

Residual stress measurement of new and in-service X70 pipelines by X-ray diffraction method

Abstract: Based on the importance and complex working environment of X70 pipelines, stress measurement and analysis were done on an in-service process pipe, an anamorphic pipe in tunnel and three new welded pipes. Stresses in both the inner and outer walls of pipes were measured by X-ray diffraction, and thus the components of complex stress, internal pressure working stress, welding residual stress (WRS) and bending stress, were obtained by comparative analysis on stresses of various pipes. The results show that the maximum WRS occurs in the heat affected zone on inner wall, and its orientation is parallel to the weld seam. These maximum WRSs in various measured spots are mostly more than 0.80 σ 0.2 and up to 1.05 σ 0.2 . However, on outer wall the stresses are less than 0.40 σ 0.2 , and WRS appear in the weld area of 40 mm wide. For the tunnel pipeline, its maximum axial and circumference stresses were up to 0.93 σ 0.2 and 0.80 σ 0.2 , respectively.

Quantifying the vibrothermographic effect

Abstract: Vibrothermography, also known as Sonic IR and thermosonics, is a method for finding cracks through thermal imaging of vibration-induced crack heating. Due to large experimental variability and equipment which has, up to now, yielded mostly qualitative results, little data has been available to help quantify the vibrothermographic effect. This paper quantitatively evaluates the relationship between vibrothermographic crack heating, crack size, and vibrational stress in a series of tests on 63 specimens each of Ti-6-4 titanium and Inconel 718 at three different sites with different equipments. Test specimens are excited in a resonant mode. Infrared cameras record the crack heating, and vibrational stress is evaluated from the known vibrational mode shape combined with vibrational velocities measured using a laser vibrometer. Crack heating increases both with crack length and dynamic vibrational stress level. Data from all three sites gives similar probability of detection (POD) curves. The relationship of crack heating to crack size and vibrational stress will provide a means in the future to predict crack detectability based on vibration measurements.

Non-contact ultrasonic detection of angled surface defects

Abstract: Non-destructive testing is an important technique, and improvements are constantly needed. Surface defects in metals are not necessarily confined to orientations normal to the sample surface; however, much of the previous work investigating the interaction of ultrasonic surface waves with surface-breaking defects has assumed cracks inclined at 90° to the surface. This paper explores the interaction of Rayleigh waves with cracks which have a wide range of angles and depths relative to the surface, using a non-contact laser generation and detection system. Additional insight is acquired using a 3D model generated using finite element method software. A clear variation of the reflection and transmission coefficients with both crack angle and length is found, in both the out-of-plane and in-plane components. The 3D model is further used to understand the contributions of different wavemodes to B-Scans produced when scanning a sample, to enable understanding of the reflection and transmission behaviour, and help identify angled defects. Knowledge of these effects is essential to correctly gauge the severity of surface cracking.

Ultrasonic air-coupled testing of square-shape CFRP composite rods by means of guided waves

Abstract: In aerospace industry, one of the most important parts of gliders and motor-gliders is a lightweight longeron reinforcement made of carbon fibre reinforced plastics (CFRP) rods, known as Graphlite SM315 composite. During manufacturing, the rods as constructional elements are glued together in epoxy-filled matrix in order to build the arbitrary spar profile. The defects present in single rods such as breakage of fibres, multiple delaminations due to the lack of bonding between fibres and reduction in density affect essentially the strength and the fail-safety of the overall construction. The aim of the present work is to investigate the effects (transmission, reflection, scattering and mode conversion) of guided waves propagation along a square-shape CFRP rod in the case of contactless excitation/reception and interaction with region of multiple delaminations applying the numerical model and performing experiments. The square-shape CFRP composite rods possessing internal artificial delamination type defects have been investigated by numerical modelling and experiments employing the developed air-coupled technique (pitch-catch set-up) for cases of conventional transmission and advanced back-scattering configurations. Numerical predictions of guided wave interaction with a multiple delamination type defect in a CFRP composite rod have been made and the interaction mechanism explained. It is possible to conclude, that the actual sizes of the internal defects have been clearly detected using reception of the back-scattered waves over the edges of the defective regions only.

Welding defect detection from radiography images with a cepstral approach

Abstract: This paper presents a new approach for feature extraction from radiography images acquired with gamma rays in order to detect weld defects. In this approach, images are lexicographically ordered into 1D signals. Then, Mel-Frequency Cepstral Coefficients (MFCCs) and polynomial coefficients are extracted from these signals, one of their transforms, or both of them. Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT), Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT), and Discrete Sine Transform (DST) are tested and compared for efficient feature extraction. Neural networks are used for feature matching in the proposed approach. Sixteen radiography images containing seventy three weld defects are used to evaluate the performance of the proposed approach. For performance evaluation, the tested images are degraded by Gaussian, impulsive, speckle, or Poisson noises with and without blurring. The experimental results show that the proposed approach can be used in a reliable way for automatic defect detection from radiography images in the presence of noise and blurring.

Numerical and experimental study of guided waves for detection of defects in the rail head

Abstract: This paper gives insight to the ultrasonic wave propagation in arbitrary cross-section waveguides such as rails, with application to ultrasonic inspection. Due to the geometrical complexity of the rail cross-section, the analytical solution to the wave propagation in the rail is not feasible. A Semi Analytical Finite Element method is described as an alternative yet still robust approach to get the solution of the problem. The free-vibration solution and the forced solution to a laser excitation of the rail head are shown up to a frequency of 500 kHz. The effects of different loading patterns are discussed, and experimental results are provided. The analysis allows for the identification of certain wave modes potentially sensitive to specific types of rail head defects.

A novel approach for flip chip solder joint inspection based on pulsed phase thermography

Abstract: Surface mount components have been extensively used in microelectronic packaging. However, it brings great challenge for defect inspection with the development of solder bumps towards ultra-fine pitch and high density. Traditional nondestructive detection methods are insufficient for solder joint assessment due to their own disadvantages. Therefore, it is necessary to explore new methods for solder joint inspection. A novel approach based on the pulsed phase thermography was investigated for identifying the defects of solder joints. In this approach, the test chip was stimulated by a thermal pulse, and the consequent transient response was captured by a commercial thermal imager. The spacial and temporal filtering techniques were adopted to improve the signal to noise ratio. The recorded thermograms were input to an improved median filter with a 5×5 mask, and the temperature evolution of each pixel was extracted and smoothed by the moving average operation. Then the temperature–time curve was fitted with an exponential function. To eliminate emissivity variations and heating non-uniformity, we converted the fitted temperature values in time domain to the phase information in frequency domain using the fast Fourier transform. In low frequency range, the phase–frequency curve of the defect area was differentiated from that of the sound area. The results demonstrate that this approach is effective for identification of the missing bumps, and can be used in the solder joint inspection in high density packaging.