Showing papers in "Open Journal of Philosophy in 2016"

On the Universal Mechanism Underlying Conscious Systems and the Foundations for a Theory of Consciousness

Abstract: In this article, I present a novel approach to the scientific understanding of consciousness. It is based on the hypothesis that the full range of phenomenal qualities is built into the frequency spectrum of a ubiquitous background field and proceeds on the assumption that conscious systems employ a universal mechanism by means of which they are able to extract phenomenal nuances selectively from this field. I set forth that in the form of the zero-point field (ZPF) physics can offer a promising candidate that is qualified for playing the dual role as both the carrier of energy and consciousness. The appropriate mechanism, which rests upon the principle of dynamical coupling of ZPF modes, is a unique feature of quantum systems, suggesting that the dividing line between conscious and non-conscious systems is defined by the differentiation between quantum systems and classical systems. The presence of this mechanism in the brain is supported by the neurophysiological body of evidence, leading to a consistent explanation of the dynamical properties of the neural correlates of consciousness. Building on these findings, I lay the foundations for the conceptually coherent integration of consciousness into the physical worldview, derive an indicator for the quantity of consciousness of a given system, and outline the further steps toward a theory of consciousness.

The Science of the Five Elements in the Evolution of Humanity: Primo Vascular System (Bonghan Circulatory System)

Abstract: In the evolution of humanity, the scientific relationship between the Theory of the Five Elements described in the Eastern philosophy and science of physics, cosmology, evolution, biology and medicine is still not clearly known. Consequently, physicists, anthropologists, biologists and medical scientists have been investigating to find objective proofs and clinical evidences that would elucidate it. In this study, findings and discoveries in sciences of these arenas are examined to find the scientific relationship. The relationship between the Theory of the Five Elements and science of cosmology, evolution, human embryology, traditional medicine, the newly-discovered Primo Vascular System (Bonghan circulatory system), and lifestyles is proposed on the basis of findings in science and in the perspective of the author’s hypothesis of the “ultron”-“logotron” theory in this study.

Why Interpret Quantum Physics

Abstract: This article probes the question of what interpretations of quantum mechanics actually accomplish. In other domains, which are briefly considered, interpretations serve to make alien systematizations intelligible to us. This often involves clarifying the status of their implicit ontology. A survey of interpretations of non-relativistic quantum mechanics supports the evaluation that these interpretations make a contribution to philosophy, but not to physics. Interpretations of quantum field theory are polarized by the divergence between the Lagrangian field theory, which leads to the Standard Model of Particle physics and the Algebraic quantum field theory that discounts an ontology of particles. Ruetsche’s interpretation offers a potential for loosening the sharp polarization that presently obtains. A brief evaluation focuses on the functional ontology of quantum field theory considered as an effective theory.

The Force of the Better Argument: Americans Can Learn Something from Jürgen Habermas and “Deliberative Democracy”

Abstract: The 2016 American political season offers an opportunity to think about American “democracy” and compare it, in particular, to the “deliberative democracy” of the German philosopher and sociologist Jurgen Habermas, to see whether the somewhat smug belief in “American exceptionalism” holds up. Many Americans uncritically believe their system of government is the model for the world. However, a comparison of that system, which almost daily draws comment that it must have sunk to its historic low (Goldberg, 2016), suggests there may be a superior way. Habermas, widely considered to be one of the most important philosophers working in the world today (Bohman & Rehg, 2014), claims that deliberative democracy is a better way informed by communicative action theory and the principles of discourse ethics. This paper, an exercise in applied philosophy, will use these ideas as a prism to view contemporary American political discourse. If American citizens were to see a better way to conduct their democracy, perhaps they would also see they need to demand more of their politicians, and recognize the weakness of their own—too often uncritically held—beliefs, then they might opt for a political process that looks more like deliberative democracy, with public policy decisions made, not coercively, not on the basis of emotion and on uncritical assumptions, but on a willingness to seek understanding (instead of, say, deliberately imposing obstruction), on rationality, and on “the force of the better argument.”

National Identity and Crisis of Integration in Multi-Ethnic Nigeria: An Existentialist Perspective

Abstract: One would expect Nigeria after attaining a century old as a nation state on January 2014 to have overcome the problem of national identity and crisis of integration resulting from its multiethnic composition, but recent events have revealed that this desired status is yet to be fully attained. In fact, there have been continuous agitation by various ethnic nationalities ranging from militancy in the Niger Delta south region which has transformed into oil bunkering, armed robbery and organized kidnapping spreading to the southeastern and western part of the country; to various forms of religious fanaticism in the northeastern axis which recently metamorphoses into terrorism and kidnapping as socio-political characteristic of the present Nigeria society, the question that arises is how far Nigeria as a nation state has put itself on the part of achieving national identity and integration of its multiethnic nationalities into a united nation state. Through the methodological approach of historico-logical analysis of identified factors militating against the above objective, this article will proffer the existentialist principle of inter-subjectivity predicated on some tested democratic values such as rule of law, justice, equality, fairness and freedom as panacea for attaining national identity and resolving crisis of integration in Nigeria.

Africa, Poverty and Forces of Change: A Holistic Approach to Perceiving and Addressing Poverty in Africa

Abstract: This work argues that Africa’s condition of poverty lingers because the continent fails to view poverty in its holistic sense in her attempts at tackling her economic challenges. Other types of poverty exist, such as mental poverty, moral poverty, emotional poverty, spiritual poverty, political poverty and social poverty, which pose great problems for the continent. Obviously, her failure to give worthwhile attention to solving these problems largely contribute to why she has not really benefited from her vast wealth of human and material resources. Also, this lack of holistic approach to perceiving poverty often allows Africa to be swayed by global forces of change such as socio-cultural factors, political factors, wars and terrorist activities, technological forces as information technology and electronic media, and so on. Consequently, majority of Africans seem to be blinded to the reality of possibility of redemption from the continents precarious economic condition. Thus, neglecting their nations, they emigrate abroad, under the guise of seeking enabling environment for productivity and survival. At the same time, those at the helms of affairs perpetuate the economic poverty status-quo by greedily enriching themselves. Thus, the con- tinent becomes an unfortunate victim of parochial perspectives as other continents become undeserving beneficiaries of her endowments and heritages. Using philosophy’s critical and argumentative methods of empirical, conceptual and historical analysis, this paper debates that a holistic perspective to poverty can help control global forces of change in ways that will favour Africa’s total development and enhance her profiting in the globalisation era.

Igbo Cosmology in Chinua Achebe’s Arrow of God: An Evaluative Analysis

Abstract: The death, burial, and funeral of African literary icon professor Chinua Achebe (1930-2013) and the fifty years anniversary of the publication of Arrow of God (AG) have led to fresh interest in the works and times of this great African literary giant. Though many books and journal articles have already been written on various themes of his work, one must not forget that Achebe wrote most of his fictional novels from Igbo traditional background. Our interest in the present endeavour is to investigate how Arrow of God recreated the Igbo traditional cosmology in various plots and characters in the novel, as well as how relevant these are to the contemporary Igbo and black Africa in general. Our methodology lies in the thematic discussion and interpretation of the plots and characters in the novel. The study is concluded on the note that Achebe exposed inevitable consequences of the situation when those in position of power and authority forget the derivative source of their power (the people) and rather cling to individual and personal aggrandizement. This will definitely bring them down from grace to grass like the chief priest of Ulu deity in Arrow of God. The novel also reveals that there is indeed a great repository of oral pre-literate tradition which our forebears have left behind for us to transmit to the coming generation as well as us as moral-social pedestal and foundation for engineering new paradigm structures for internally motivated African development.

An Evaluation of the Akure Yorùbá Traditional Belief in Reincarnation

Abstract: Reincarnation is the belief that after someone dies; his immortal soul separates from the body and lives again in another physical body. The traditional Yoruba culture holds the belief in reincarnation (atunwaye). Atunwaye is believed to be possible in three different forms which are: ipadawaye (ancestor’s rebirth), akudaaya (die and reappear) and abiku (born to die). Yoruba people of Akure also hold on to the traditional belief in atunwaye. The article used the philosophical tools of analysis and evaluation to examine reincarnation beliefs among the Yoruba people in general and Akure people in particular. Oral interviews were also conducted among indigenes of Akure, to understand their beliefs on reincarnation. Findings show that Yoruba people of Akure also hold on to traditional belief in reincarnation (atunwaye) in its various forms. The research concludes that reincarnation is an established belief among the Yoruba people in general and the Akure people in particular. It is also noted that this belief has survived despite the influence of Christianity and Islam on the culture of Akure people.

Freezing of Reality: Is Flow of Time Real?

Abstract: In physics, space-time is frequently treated as a congealed timeless block, in which there is no place for the unidirectional and irreversible flow (arrow) of time and the present. However, we receive the world subjectively as “happening” in time, which is inseparably associated with the psychical feeling of the present, separating the past and the future. This article postulates that these phenomena exist in a completely real manner. An irreversible process called here the “freezing of reality” is responsible for this. It is directly associated with the collapse or decoherence of the wave-function in the result of its interaction with the surroundings. These processes do not require any “measurement” or the presence of a subjective, conscious observer.

Technology and Critical Cultural Understanding

Abstract: In our everyday lives, we come into contact with a series of technological objects and we employ technology in a number of ways. Usually, the “relation” we develop with these objects works, on a first level, for our benefit. On the other hand, we actually know little about the technologies we use in order to accomplish various activities. Technologies have neither been developed, nor do they exist independently, even though we tend to perceive them as natural objects in themselves. Perhaps they are as much defined by causal laws, which are relevant to their “behavior” as specific artifacts, as they obtain ad hoc characteristics through our significations, which already belong to a specific social system. This ignorance of common sense often leads to the exclusion of a number of topics that are intertwined with the technological phenomenon from the everyday agenda of political debate. Moreover, the errors that stem from our unsophisticated or even unconscious attitude towards these artifacts have important consequences on various areas, including “development” and “work”, education, the environment, and human communication itself. This paper will try to present elements of a critical theory of technology in order to illustrate the need to link the technological phenomenon with everyday political practice.

Levels of Consciousness

Abstract: Consciousness attracts the attention of researchers representing various disciplines. Hence, there is a demand for a theoretical tool that could integrate data and theoretical concepts originating from distinct fields. The paper proposes to use the framework of the theory of integrative levels. The development and the definitions of the concept of levels are briefly discussed. The final part of the paper presents a proposal for incorporating the levels of consciousness into the framework of the integrative levels theory.

The Ethics of Cooperation in Business

Abstract: As cooperative ventures and strategic alliances have increased in numbers, there is need for an analysis which does not proceed from presumption that singular-person action is the only form of action. When doing things with others, certain wrongs become possible that solo activity does not recognize. Moreover, such an alternative might help identify explanations and ways firms might better manage cooperative ventures. Philosophers in the field of business ethics can contribute to this discussion by bringing insight to a concept that is now at the focus of the business and academic community. This paper aims to clarify the concept of cooperation and more specifically the notions of cooperative action. At least some obligations seem to arise out of the very fact that we are in some activity together. The questions posed in connection with it are such as, “What exactly do we mean by cooperation? What are the key characteristics of cooperation? Is it possible to delineate a generic typology of various kinds of cooperation?” Initially the paper fleshes out the formal features of the concept. Next, the paper considers the types of cooperation likely to exist in the business world, offering four schemes of cooperation that progress from the more limited to the more advanced forms of cooperation. Consequently, it discusses the idea of cooperation in business from an ethical perspective.

Religious Epistemology in John Hick’s Philosophy: A Nigerian Appreciation

Abstract: John Hick is well-known among philosophers and theologians for his philosophy of religious pluralism. Before proposing his theory of religious pluralism, however, he has made major contributions in religious epistemology and other religio-philosophical issues. His later philosophy of religious pluralism is based on his earlier proposal on religious epistemology. Hick affirmed that although religious statements are cognitive, the world is religiously ambiguous. This paper argues that Nigeria as a country riddled with religious conflicts can benefit from religious epistemology of John Hick. Using conceptual analytic method of philosophy to present Hick’s religious epistemology and applicatory technique to propose how the epistemology can be appropriated in Nigeria, the paper argues that such religious epistemology will result in tolerance and peace.

Self-Recognition and Other-Recognition in Point-Light Displays

Abstract: Adult humans’ recognition of self and others in diverse media (e.g., mirrors, videos) provides evidence for their skills at kinesthetic-visual and visual-visual matching, respectively. In this study, we examine self- and other-recognition in point-light displays (PLDs). Participants (7 men, 4 women) were filmed while walking in the dark with lighted joints to create two PLDs each, one showing a frontal view and one showing a half-profile view. Ten of the participants then observed 22 PLDs, two of themselves and two each of 10 familiar persons, and named whom they perceived in each PLD. Participants achieved greater than chance levels of accuracy in identifying themselves (55% of the time) and others (29.5%). Comparisons using three measures showed that participants were better at detecting themselves than others; however, variability in self- and other-detection within and across studies suggests caution prior to generalizing. Participants were equally successful in detecting walkers in frontal and half-profile PLDs, on average detecting about 3 walkers out of 11 in each perspective. Thus, participants showed some skill in using kinesthetic-visual and visual-visual matching in recognizing self and other, respectively, from the limited information present in PLDs.

Philosophy and Science, the Darwinian-Evolved Computational Brain, a Non-Recursive Super-Turing Machine & Our Inner-World-Producing Organ

Abstract: Recent advances in neuroscience lead to a wider realm for philosophy to include the science of the Darwinian-evolved computational brain, our inner world producing organ, a non-recursive super-Turing machine combining 100B synapsing-neuron DNA-computers based on the genetic code. The whole system is a logos machine offering a world map for global context, essential for our intentional grasp of opportunities. We start from the observable contrast between the chaotic universe vs. our orderly inner world, the noumenal cosmos. So far, philosophy has been rehearsing our thoughts, our human-internal world, a grand painting of the outer world, how we comprehend subjectively our experience, worked up by the logos machine, but now we seek a wider horizon, how humans understand the world thanks to Darwinian evolution to adapt in response to the metaphysical gap, the chasm between the human animal and its environment, shaping the organism so it can deal with its variable world. This new horizon embraces global context coded in neural structures that support the noumenal cosmos, our inner mental world, for us as denizens of the outer environment. Kant’s inner and outer senses are fundamental ingredients of scientific philosophy. Several sections devoted to Heidegger, his lizard debunked, but his version of the metaphysical gap & his doctrine of the logos praised. Rorty and others of the behaviorist school discussed also.

Collective Responsibility: Organizations as Organic Entities

Abstract: The question of who exactly is responsible for an organization’s actions cannot be too carefully considered, as a clear understanding of this point is crucial from ethical, moral, managerial, and public perspectives This article discusses how to justify a non-participant member’s responsibility for the actions of other group members, establishing collective responsibility The article develops a novel context-depended framework that solves this problem by supplying good grounds for perceiving organizations as organic entities, which is adequate for establishing collective responsibility I suggest that to be responsible for the actions of an organization, one has to belong to that organization, even if one has not taken any part at any level in group actions The more regular concept of causal responsibility is not applicable here since it cannot account for the responsibility of non-participant members

Meteorite Impact Origin of Yellowstone Hotspot

Abstract: Origin of the Yellowstone hotspot & Columbia River Basalts has remained uncertain until now. Here, we present evidence of meteorite impact origin. The hotspot is shallow, only 200 km deep, invalidating a theory of mantle plume origin. The hotspot track runs from the Yellowstone National Park in NW Wyoming to the volcanic Modoc Plateau in NE California. We present evidence of apparent remnants of an impact crater existing in the Modoc, a large multi-ring structure at least 160 km diameter. Much of the complex crater has become obliterated by later Cascadia and Sierra orogenies. The crater has a tall 4,100 foot central uplift cone, locally known as Chalk Mountain, consisting of diatomaceous earth, presumably the rebound cone of a meteorite impact. This falsifies a theoretical prohibition of cosmic impact volcanism. Based on recent insights into explosive volcanism a plausible mechanism is proposed for how meteorite impacts can lead to resurgent calderas of the Yellowstone type, & of apparent LIP origin from thin crust ET impacts, invalidating theoretical constructs of mantle plumes. We mention chaotic terrains, including plutons, arising antipodal to impacts.

Heroes’ Dilemma and Believers’ Dilemma

Abstract: Based on our knowledge, understanding, and wisdom, we choose. We sometimes cannot choose both, two or more and nothing. We either believe what we choose or not because of our intentions. Heroes’ dilemma and Believers’ dilemma are about two choices that both have negative results when chosen, but the person may choose the one better than the other based on his character. The author gave twelve examples, eight examples for heroes’ dilemma and four examples for believers’ dilemma. The choice is the good. Heroes’ dilemma requires an act of heroism and believers’ dilemma requires an act of courage. Actions analyses and textual analyses are observed.

A Refutation of the Diagonal Argument

Abstract: The diagonal argument is a very famous proof, which has influenced many areas of mathematics. However, this paper shows that the diagonal argument cannot be applied to the sequence of potentially infinite number of potentially infinite binary fractions. First, the original form of Cantor’s diagonal argument is introduced. Second, it is demonstrated that any natural number is finite, by a simple mathematical induction. Third, the concept of potential infinity, created by Aristotle, is presented. Typically, the natural numbers are considered potentially infinite. However, although any natural number is finite, there is also no limit to how large a natural number can be. Fourth, the concept of the potentially infinite decimal is introduced. Fifth, it is easily proven that the diagonal argument cannot be applied to the sequence of all n-bit binary fractions in the interval [0,1). Finally, the diagonal argument is shown to be inapplicable to the sequence of the potentially infinite number of potentially infinite binary fractions, which contains all n-bit binary fractions in the interval [0,1) for any n.

Differential Calculus Based on the Double Contradiction

Abstract: The derivative is a basic concept of differential calculus. However, if we calculate the derivative as change in distance over change in time, the result at any instant is 0/0, which seems meaningless. Hence, Newton and Leibniz used the limit to determine the derivative. Their method is valid in practice, but it is not easy to intuitively accept. Thus, this article describes the novel method of differential calculus based on the double contradiction, which is easier to accept intuitively. Next, the geometrical meaning of the double contradiction is considered as follows. A tangent at a point on a convex curve is iterated. Then, the slope of the tangent at the point is sandwiched by two kinds of lines. The first kind of line crosses the curve at the original point and a point to the right of it. The second kind of line crosses the curve at the original point and a point to the left of it. Then, the double contradiction can be applied, and the slope of the tangent is determined as a single value. Finally, the meaning of this method for the foundation of mathematics is considered. We reflect on Dehaene’s notion that the foundation of mathematics is based on the intuitions, which evolve independently. Hence, there may be gaps between intuitions. In fact, the Ancient Greeks identified inconsistency between arithmetic and geometry. However, Eudoxus developed the theory of proportion, which is equivalent to the Dedekind Cut. This allows the iteration of an irrational number by rational numbers as precisely as desired. Simultaneously, we can define the irrational number by the double contradiction, although its existence is not guaranteed. Further, an area of a curved figure is iterated and defined by rectilinear figures using the double contradiction.

The Rising Paradigm of Pentecostapreneurship in Nigeria: Impacts on National Development

Abstract: For over four decades now, the Pentecostal brand of Christianity has remained on steady rise and boom in Nigeria. The churches flourish as vibrant business enterprises—the founders and leaders—operate in the praxis of entrepreneurs. The number of such churches operating in the frame of pentecostapreneurship is so many that investigation into the phenomenon is necessary. Relying on phenomenological method of enquiry, skewed in qualitative analysis, the paper identified the pentecostapreneurship praxis as veritable socio-economic activity for national development. The operational strategies revolve around crusade, revival and outreach programmes.

The Study of Factors Affecting the Creation of Cognition Based on Power-Knowledge Point of View

Abstract: Various factors are influencing the creation of cognition so that “Mannheim” refers to economic interests and the insight of groups and social classes, “Weber” to the economic system and the in- terests, and also “Foucault” in his theory of power-knowledge refers to the power. Among the above factors, the power can have the greatest influence on the creation of cognition. So for “Foucault”, the power can lead to the development of knowledge through structures, institutions and discourses. On the other hand, the knowledge as a complement to the power can maintain and expand this latter. But it should be noted that the Knowledge itself can also cause cognition in people by giving them awareness and understanding about things. It seems therefore that cognition is also affected by Power. In this article, we will try to assess a cognition created by the correlations of Power and in the meantime try to learn about other factors that influence the creation of cognition. Hence, this article can help considerably to revise the foundations of Epistemology, as well as to present the specifications of the probable future ideas all in reviewing and reconstructing the sociology routes and appropriate use of present and past experiences and cognitive capacities.

Voluntary Control of Desire

Abstract: In this paper, I will investigate whether there is any way in which our desires or wants are under our voluntary control. I shall argue that even if our desires are not under our voluntary control, there are still significantly many cases in which we can properly be blamed, praised, or upbraided for having certain desires.

Beliefs, Values and Morals: The Philosophical Underpinnings of Dysthanasia

Abstract: In medical practice, the treatment and prognosis in the end of life has associated to ethical dilemmas, which are established in conformity with individual or collective beliefs and values. Dysthanasia from Greek, means to make death difficult, and it is currently an ethical problem with significant consequences. Considering that death itself has two moments, the process of death and the moment of death, dysthanasia is the undue prolongation of the process of death with the help of technological devices that allows the life sustaining procedures. Although it is through the technological advances that the moment of death can be delayed, it is the beliefs and values that are deep rooted in the sub conscience of the physicians that are responsible for the demeanor of end of life ethical dilemmas. Beliefs and values when encompassed in areas like phenomenology of knowledge, dialectic of technology, conflict of values and existentialism and metaphysics, can somehow explain this issue that is current, emerging and compelling.

Structures of Confinements as an Empirical Property of Consciousness and a Fundamental Property in Physics

Abstract: Our consciousness is confined to experience our own thoughts. By subjectively investigating associations between conscious experiences from different senses, it can be shown how confinement must be an existing property relating to smaller parts of our conscious experiences as well. In this article, it is investigated how entities confining other entities may serve as fundamental building blocks of physics and consciousness. The model evolves by changing the structure of confinements. It turns out that classical mechanics, relativity, quantum mechanics, non-locality, and a solution to the measurement problem in quantum mechanics follow from the definition of this model. The model also clarifies how different conscious experiences can be determined by different physical states, which is related to the hard problem of consciousness.

Boko Haram Insurgency in Nigeria: Beyond the Issue of Unity and National Integration

Abstract: The problem of insurgency facing Nigeria at this point in time draws the attention of anyone who cares to the urgency of a solution. However, to successfully seek out a solution, one needs to identify the very root of the problem. In this paper, an attempt is made to identify the very major problem with Nigeria: why there are unrests almost on steady basis. One thing that comes to mind as an answer is the disparity in culture, way of life, understanding and so on. Nevertheless, these are not really much of a problem since any group of people with the same disparate system can still coexist when there is a subtle meeting point of interest. In the Nigerian system, the situation is bad. The various groups do not understand each other and are not willing to do so owing to the unclear sort of social contract entered into at the inception of the nation by the compatriots. This breeds mistrust and unrest for all time like the civil war and the present boko haram insurgency. This work argues that if the social contract situation is revisited and made better and fair the situation can be better managed.

The Struggle of Communist Society against the Capitalist Society and Religion

Abstract: The capitalist system of exploitation of workers opened the door to the process of class conflict and created opposite social class such as bourgeoisie (those who own the means of production in capitalist society) and proletariat (individuals with labor power). That conflict would be solved, according to Marx, through revolutionary struggle. In this conflict, the proletariat will rise up against the bourgeoisie and establish a communist society. Marx and Engels gave some description of communist society: Abolition of property in land, centralization of credit in the hands of the state, centralization of the means of communication and transport in the hands of the state, extension of factories and instruments of production owned by the state, free education for all children in public schools etc. (Boyle & Marx, 2004). A communist party is a political party that advocates the application of the social and economic principles of communism through state policy.

Can a Timeless God Act in the World

Abstract: Can a timeless God act in the world? The purpose of this paper is to address this question by exploring the nature of timeless God’s omniscience. In the first part I argue—having explored what it means to say that God is timeless—that we should think of a timeless God’s omniscience factually rather than propositionally i.e. that a timeless God doesn’t know all propositions, but does know all facts. One consequence of this view is that though everything (what we call past, present and future) is equally present in the mind of a timeless God, being timeless he doesn’t know which events are past, which are present and which are future. For example, he doesn’t know that what is presently happening in the world is presently happening. The central issue I then consider in the second part is whether his knowledge could really be of the right kind for him to act in the temporal world. I argue that though God has knowledge of all the events in the temporal world and even knows (perhaps) their temporal orderings, he is unable to intervene because to do so he would need to have the knowledge he lacks; namely, he would need to know which events in the temporal world are past, which are present and which are future.

Critique of John Locke Objection to the Innate Ideas

Abstract: The debate about innetivism is not a new subject in philosophy. From the earlier philosophers up to the recent ones, the main question that remains is: men are born with some ideas or we only know through experience? In this study, the emphasis will not be the process of human knowledge but the controversy in the objection of Locke to the innate Idea. From the beginning of his objection, John Locke shows that we are born with empty mind. Then through experience we build the knowledge little by little. But later on, Locke recognizes that it’s also possible that children may have some ideas from the womb. They may experience wants, diseases, hunger, and heat. To him many of those ideas which were produced in the minds of children, in the beginning of their sensation, if they are not repeated in future, then they are quite lost. If we choose the fact that people are born with ideas from pre-experience, that view is more scientific and more logical than the religious view of Plato. The paper concludes that even though there is no complete agreement on how innate ideas are made, we did not come in the world with blank mind and what is important is not how innate ideas have been made but their existence and application in life.

Avicenna’s Necessary Being

Abstract: This article examines the distinctive characteristics of Avicenna’s doctrine of the Necessary Being, arguing that Avicenna developed his doctrine under the influence of Aristotle’s metaphysical thinking, but, unlike Aristotle he does not proceed from the distinction between form and matter. Instead, Avicenna has established his doctrine on essence-existence dichotomy. The article also investigates Avicenna’s view on God’s knowledge of particulars in light of his doctrine of the Necessary Being. The article begins by discussing Aristotle’s analysis of the meaning of the prime cause and its simplicity. It will then examine the simplicity of the Necessary Being in light of Aristotle’s metaphysics.