Showing papers in "Oryx in 2002"

A review of the global conservation status of bats

Abstract: makers as well as organisations and individuals who are promoting bat conservation issues. The underlying lights the priority areas where action is needed immediately at a global, regional or national level. It highlights threat to bats is pressure on resources from increasing human populations that leads to the loss or modification in particular the global importance of islands and caves for bats. of foraging habitats and roosts. Bats frequently have a negative public image that influences the response to the problems of rabies and vampire bats in Latin America Keywords Action Plan, bats, caves, Chiroptera, conservation priorities, islands. and conflicts between bats and commercial fruit growers in other areas of the world. In some areas bats are

Identifying appropriate flagship species: the importance of culture and local contexts

Abstract: Overthelast50yearstherehasbeenincreasing selection of flagship species. We then describe threeuse of charismatic large mammals and birds as ‘flagship examples of local flagship species and assess their usespecies’ to raise funds and promote the ethos of con- againstthesecriteria:theAsianelephant Elephas maximusservation. However, species chosen to appeal to donor for the conservation of landscapes in Aceh, Indonesia,and membership groups may not necessarily be con- the flying fox Pteropus voeltzkowi for forest protection onsidered popular among local communities. A growing Pemba Island, Tanzania, and the ceiba or kapok treerecognition of the need to engage local communities in Ceiba pentandra for the conservation of forests in Belize.conservation makes them an increasingly importantaudience for information about conservation. In such Keywords Asian elephant, Ceiba pentandra , culture,situationsanawarenessofthelocalperceptionandvalue flagship species, local communities, local participation,of diCerent species is central to choosing eCective flag- Pemba flying fox.ships. Emphasising this, we propose 10 criteria for thebut it has been questioned whether the use of suchIntroductionspecies is eCective in protecting other species or eco-The use of particular species or taxa as symbols or ‘flag- systems with which they are associated (Entwistle &ships’hasbeenadoptedbyawiderangeoforganisations Dunstone, 2000).and agencies as a means of engaging and informing One of the greatest challenges to conservation isselected audiences about conservation eCorts (Dietz developing community-led projects that convey an aware-

Habituating the great apes: The disease risks

Abstract: All six great apes, gorillas Gorilla gorilla and G. beringei , chimpanzees Pan troglodytes and P. paniscus , and orang-utans Pongo pygmaeus and P. abelii , are categorized as Endangered on the 2000 IUCN Red List and face many threats to their continued existence in the wild. These threats include loss of habitat to settlement, logging and agriculture, illegal hunting for bushmeat and traditional medicine, the live ape trade, civil unrest and infectious diseases. The great apes are highly susceptible to many human diseases, some of which can be fatal while others can cause marked morbidity. There is increasing evidence that diseases can be transmitted from humans to free-living habituated apes, sometimes with serious consequences. If protective measures are not improved, ape populations that are frequently in close contact with people will eventually be affected by the inadvertent transmission of human diseases. This paper describes the risks, sources and circumstances of infectious disease transmission from humans to great apes during and consequent upon habituation for tourism and research. A major problem is that the regulations that protect habituated apes from the transmission of disease from people are often poorly enforced. Suggestions are made for improving the enforcement of existing regulations governing ape-based tourism, and for minimizing the risk of disease transmission between humans, both local people and international visitors, and the great apes.

Estimating the number of green and loggerhead turtles nesting annually in the Mediterranean

Abstract: Most species of marine turtle breed every two or more years and it is the norm for females to lay more than one clutch of eggs within a nesting season. Knowing the interval between breeding seasons and the clutch frequency (number of clutches laid by an individual in a breeding season) of females allows us to assess the status of a nesting population. At Alagadi Beach, Northern Cyprus, over a period of 6 years (1995–2000), we attributed 96% of green Chelonia mydas and 80% of loggerhead Caretta caretta turtle clutches to known individual females. This intensive level of monitoring enabled us to estimate the clutch frequency for both species. Using four different methods we estimated clutch frequency to be 2.9–3.1 clutches per female for green turtles and 1.8–2.2 clutches per female for loggerhead turtles. The median interval between nesting seasons for green turtles was 3 years, and for loggerhead turtles it was 2 years. Utilizing these parameters and available data from other beaches that are monitored regularly, we estimate that there are 2,280–2,787 logger-head and 339–360 green turtles nesting annually at these sites in the Mediterranean. This highlights the Critically Endangered status of this population of green turtles. Furthermore, as conventional beach patrols underestimate clutch frequency, these population estimates are likely to be optimistic.

The bushmeat boom and bust in West and Central Africa

Abstract: Poor soils and high rainfall mean that the high productivity of the forests, an assumption that drives the development of the forest zone, is an illusion. The potential of the forests to produce meat, from wild or domestic herbivores, is limited. Growing human populations and shrinking forests accelerate pressures on forest resources faster than national statistics indicate. A simulation model demonstrates the effects of growing hunting pressure on one monkey and two duiker species. A version of this model that includes random variation shows that large harvests can be obtained for many years, but that a population collapse can happen suddenly; there is no period of gradually declining harvests. The accelerating hunting pressure in a zone of low productivity, shrinking habitat for monkeys and antelopes, the dynamics of non-linear systems, and natural environmental variation that affects reproduction and survival will lead to a collapse of hunted populations across the forest zone. We are now seeing the bushmeat boom and soon we will see the bushmeat bust.

The impact of war on forest areas in the Democratic Republic of Congo

Abstract: This paper provides a review of data on the effects of the civil war on forest areas in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Only a few of these effects were beneficial, the most important being the collapse of the wood industry. However, the war has increased the number of people that rely on wood for fuel and bushmeat for protein. The presence of soldiers and refugees aggravates this pressure. When people hide they do not necessarily refrain from hunting, because goods, including ivory, can be stocked to be traded when the situation improves. War seems beneficial to the environment only if it keeps people out of large areas. It could be useful to extend the concept of peace parks to war zones. The idea of an international ‘green force’ to protect biodiversity hotspots should be given serious consideration. Awareness is growing that political instability should not preclude conservation efforts from being continued.

Hunting the world's wildlife to extinction

Abstract: The twin threats to wildlife across the world are habitat Actions to address the problems are proceeding apace across the tropical world. More eCective enforcement of loss and hunting, but the perception of which looms larger has fluctuated over time. In the last 10 years, protected areas, partnerships with logging companies in Congo, and bans on wildlife trade in Sarawak are all however, we have come to realize that hunting is the major threat across the tropics. Ironically, given the proving successful. However to make the leap from action at a local level to action across the political and success we have had in protecting certain key areas, these areas are increasingly becoming ‘empty forests’ development arena we need more information. It is clear that levels of oCtake from tall forests are grossly (Redford, 1992). The threat posed by hunting is especially great in tropical forests, where the productivity of edible unsustainable (Robinson & Bennett, 2000), and inadequate to support even subsistence consumption by growing wildlife is extremely low. Certain groups of species are especially vulnerable to hunting (e.g. McGowan & rural human populations, let alone a commercial market. But forest edges may be more productive (Barnes, 2002), Garson, Guest Editorial, this volume), but the current scale of hunting aCects the whole biotic community. and harvests of rodents and other edge species are possibly sustainable in some areas. How hunting can be Using conservative estimates of oCtake about 28 million bay duikers, 16 million blue duikers and more than 7 managed so that productive species can be harvested whilst not hampering eCorts to conserve the more million red colobus are taken from the forests of Central Africa every year (Wilkie & Carpenter, 1999; Fa & Peres, vulnerable species is unclear even in theory, let alone in practice. We know that many people, be they hunters, 2001). Extraction of wildlife from such forests is presently six times the sustainable rate (Bennett, 2002). traders or consumers, depend on the harvest of wildlife, but we have contradictory data on what proportion of To assess the current state of knowledge and identify areas for action two related symposia, on hunting and the harvest is consumed in rural communities, and how much enters urban markets. We do not have a good the conservation of exploited species, were held at the 16th Annual Meeting of the Society for Conservation understanding of how a decline in harvest rates will aCect people’s protein consumption or what would be Biology at the University of Kent, Canterbury, UK, in July 2002. In addition to data on the scale of the problem, the economic impact of strict control of the commercial trade. There are no clear data on the ecological eCects the symposia included case studies of approaches that are starting to succeed. These symposia attracted a large caused by the large volume of unsustainable wildlife trade. There is not yet consensus on the extent to which audience and stimulated vibrant discussions. This issue of Oryx contains Forum pieces arising out of this debate. wildlife consumption is aCected by price, especially relative to domestic alternatives, nor on the complex interactions of the driving forces behind the commercial Elizabeth L. Bennett (Corresponding author) and John G. Robinson trade. Wildlife Conservation Society, 2300 Southern Blvd., Bronx, New York The answers to these questions will determine con10460, USA. E-mail: liz@lizbennett.org servation actions. While there is a broad recognition that E. J. Milner-Gulland Renewable Resources Assessment Group, there is a serious conservation problem, conservation Department of Environmental Science and Technology, Royal School of Mines, Imperial College London, Prince Consort Road, London, programmes have been hampered in their design and SW7 2BP, UK. implementation by the outstanding questions. The answers are not obvious (c.f. Ling et al., this volume), and while Mohamed Bakarr Center for Applied Biodiversity Science, Conservation International, 1919 M Street N.W., Suite 600, Washington, DC 20036, continuing our eCorts on the ground, we must simulUSA. taneously step up our eCorts, combining biological understanding (RowcliCe, this volume) with expertise from Heather E. Eves Bushmeat Crisis Task Force, 8403 Colesville Road, Suite 710, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA. other disciplines (Robinson & Bennett, this volume). We must turn scientific knowledge into much more wideDavid S. Wilkie Wildlife Conservation Society, 18 Clark Lane, Waltham, MA 02451–1823, USA. scale action through open discussion of the success and failures of diCerent approaches, and disseminate the information much more eBcaciously to governments Manuscript accepted for publication 6 August 2002.

The Uluguru Mountains of eastern Tanzania: the effect of forest loss on biodiversity

Abstract: The Uluguru Mountains in eastern Tanzania contain at least 16 endemic vertebrate and 135 endemic plant taxa, with hundreds of more taxa shared only with forests in eastern Tanzania and Kenya. This degree of endemism is exceptional in tropical Africa, and the Uluguru Mountains are one of the 10 most important tropical forest sites for conservation on the continent. Surveys carried out during 1999–2001 updated information on the status of forests and biodiversity across the Uluguru Mountains. Forest area has declined from c. 300 km2 in 1955 to 230 km2 in 2001. Forest loss has been greatest over altitudes of 600–1,600 m, and concentrated in submontane forest. During the recent surveys most of the endemic and near-endemic vertebrate species known from the Uluguru Mountains were re-recorded, but three endemic snake species and two near-endemic bird species were not found. These species were previously known from the elevations where deforestation has been greatest. More than 50 plant species are also known only from the altitude range that has been heavily deforested. The primary cause of forest loss has been clearance for new farmland. The forest that does remain is largely confined to Catchment Forest Reserves managed for water by the Tanzanian Government. Without these reserves the loss of forest, and hence the loss of biodiversity, in the Uluguru Mountains would most likely have been much greater.

Meat prices influence the consumption of wildlife by the Tsimane' Amerindians of Bolivia

Abstract: Wildlife (bushmeat or game) is the primary source of protein for most poor households in tropical forests, and its consumption is resulting in unsustainable hunting of large animals, even in isolated regions. As a result, loss of fauna is often a more immediate and significant threat to the conservation of biological diversity in tropical forests than is deforestation. Although the potential effects of the extirpation from tropical forests of large, seed predating and seed dispersing wild animals is poorly understood, it is likely that there will be irrevocable changes in the structure and function of these ecosystems. We carried out a survey of 510 households of Tsimane' Amerindians in the rainforest of Bolivia to investigate how the prices of game and meat from domesticated animals affect the consumption of game. The results indicated that the price of fish and meat from livestock is positively correlated with consumption of wildlife, suggesting that policy makers may be able to reduce the unsustainable hunting of wildlife for food by reducing the price of fish and the price of meat from domesticated animals relative to that of wildlife. Increasing the production of livestock without causing environmental degradation will require long-term public investment in agricultural research and extension, and substitution of fish for game meat in the absence of sustainable management regimes will result in over-exploitation of riverine and lacustrine fish stocks.

Will alleviating poverty solve the bushmeat crisis

Abstract: There is a broad consensus among the scientific and for the needs of these people. They typically lack the education, skills and cultural context to take advantage conservation communities that the ‘bushmeat crisis’ in tropical forests is not hyperbole. The annual harvest of of cash-earning jobs in plantations and industry. International assistance has tended to work against these wild species for their meat is vast: estimates are 23,500 tonnes in Sarawak (Bennett, 2002), 67,000–164,000 tonnes most marginalized of people. They lose access to their land and traditional resources, often experiencing drops in the Brazilian Amazon (Robinson & Redford, 1991), and 1–5 million tonnes in Central Africa (Wilkie & in daily protein consumption, as development initiatives open up their lands to outsiders. Lacking capital and Carpenter, 1999; Fa & Peres, 2001). Hunting rates exceed sustainable levels across large swathes of the tropics, access to markets, such people cannot switch to alternative livelihoods or food sources. Hit by the advancing and as a consequence populations of hundreds of species are going locally extinct. In addition, people whose lives development frontier and the need to engage with a cash economy, they often sell wildlife as a principal depend on wildlife are losing a significant natural resource. Across the humid tropics millions of people source of income. This harvest is rarely sustainable, exacerbating their problem. Sustainable livelihoods for depend on meat from wildlife for both food and income. For many of the poorest rural people bushmeat is not a these people become a chimera. Development assistance has also been counterluxury or something that they only turn to in times of hardship. It is a vital source of animal protein, and a productive to the goal of changing the behaviour of wild meat purchasers. Development eCorts have tended commodity that can be sold. The twin imperatives of addressing people’s needs and to focus on creating jobs for the urban and semi-urban poor: people with some education who can benefit from aspirations on the one hand, and conserving the world’s species on the other, has suggested to many a ‘silver the newly created jobs. Experience from Africa and Asia has shown that as wealth increases so does the demand bullet’: solve the bushmeat crisis by alleviating poverty in tropical countries. The logic from the perspective of for wildlife; the expanding wildlife markets in towns and cities from Libreville and Brazzaville to Bangkok, London or Washington is unassailable: poor countries and people are trapped by their immediate needs, Jakarta and Shanghai epitomize this. Historical failure does not doom future eCorts. and forced by circumstances to overuse their resources. Raising people’s incomes by providing alternative sources Development assistance undoubtedly has a role to play in solving the bushmeat crisis, but simplistic eCorts to of revenue will therefore lower harvest rates of natural resources. create jobs and increase national GDP will surely have all the expected tragic consequences. The only way out But will poverty alleviation solve the bushmeat crisis? The history of development assistance from the 1950s of this crisis will be oCered by long-term, integrated eCorts that provide alternative sources of protein and onwards is not encouraging, having fostered environmental degradation and resource depletion in less income for the rural poor, curtail the commercial trade in wildlife, secure wildlife populations in protected areas, developed countries. The impact of poverty alleviation eCorts on wildlife harvests will ultimately depend on educate hunters and buyers, and involve government, the not-for-profit and the private sectors. Unfortunately how aid is targeted and which people benefit. If wildlife harvests are to decrease to sustainable there is no ‘silver bullet’ for the twin goals of conserving wildlife across the humid tropics and preventing the levels the people whose behaviour must change are those who hunt and possibly sell wildlife, and those people whose lives now depend on wildlife from being driven further against the wall. who buy it. Those who hunt are the millions of people at the margins of the cash economy in Asia, Africa and Latin America, and whose lives are intertwined with References natural areas. These are the people who live on less than US $1 per day. Despite rhetoric to the contrary, Bennett, E.L. (2002) Is there a link between wild meat and food development assistance has traditionally failed to cater security? Conservation Biology, 16, 590–592. Fa, J.E. & Peres, C. (2001) Hunting in tropical forests. In

Forest buffalo prefer clearings to closed-canopy forest in the primary forest of northern Congo

Abstract: During 1993–2000 the conservation status of forest buffalo Syncerus caffer was investigated in the Nouabale-Ndoki National Park region, northern Congo. Data from dung counts collected during a number of ecological reconnaissance surveys in and around the National Park showed that the preferred buffalo habitat was open canopy swamps and forest clearings associated with watercourses. Buffalo abundance was very low in terra firma forest more than 250 m from water, and signs were restricted to large elephant trails connecting watercourses and clearings. The clumped distribution of the buffalo appeared to be a result of the highly patchy distribution of their food resources. In terra firma forest preferred food species were poorly represented, whereas in open swamp and sedge clearings they were more abundant. Low overall numbers, highly patchy distribution, small group size, and low effort-high return for hunters, including sport hunters, mean that buffalo must be considered a conservation priority in this environment.

Further declines of threatened primates in the Korup Project Area, south-west Cameroon

Abstract: The diurnal primate community of the Korup area of south-west Cameroon is rich in species and high in endemism. Two years monitoring in the Support Zone around Korup National Park have shown that, although all species of the original community are still present, Preuss' red colobus and drill, which were considered to be threatened in the early 1990s, have declined further and are probably facing local extinction. Densities of the crowned monkey also seem to have declined. Only mona and putty-nosed monkeys have an expanded distribution, and densities that are within the range of those reported from previous studies in the region. Although hunting is the most important cause of these declines, logging also appears to be having a detrimental effect. In logged forest group densities of chimpanzee, red-capped mangabey, mona monkey and red-eared monkey decreased between the two survey years, whilst remaining constant or increasing in unlogged forest. The frequency of associations of guenon species did not differ between logged and unlogged study sites, but encounters of associations of all four guenon species were only found in unlogged forest. We strongly recommend enforcement of anti-poaching activities inside the Korup National Park, and establishment of wildlife management in the Support Zone, as only a combined strategy can successfully guarantee the persistence of the wildlife of the region.

Uneconomical game cropping in a community-based conservation project outside the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania

Abstract: Uneconomical game cropping in a community-based conservation project outside the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania

Collectors endanger Australia's most threatened snake, the broad-headed snake Hoplocephalus bungaroides

Abstract: The collection of reptiles for the pet trade is often cited as a potential problem for threatened species, but quantitative data on the effects of this trade on wild populations are lacking. In south-eastern Australia the decline of the threatened broad-headed snake Hoplocephalus bungaroides has been blamed on habitat destruction and the collection of snakes for pets, but there was little evidence to support the latter hypothesis. During 1992-2000 we studied one of the last extant southern populations of broad-headed snakes in Morton National Park, New South Wales, where <600 individuals remain on an isolated plateau. Analysis of 9 years of mark-recapture data reveal that the activities of snake collectors seriously endanger the viability of this species. The study population of H. bungaroides was stable over 1992-1996, but declined dramatically in 1997, coincident with evidence of illegal collecting, possibly stimulated by a government amnesty that allowed pet owners to obtain permit,, for illegally held reptiles. Survivorship analyses revealed that 85% of adult females disappeared from the population in 1997. There was no such effect on male survivorship, suggesting that snake collectors, selectively removed adult females, which are the largest snakes in the population. Humans caused significant damage to fragile rock outcrops in three of the 9 years of the study, and a second bout of habitat disturbance in 1999 coincided with a second decline in the H. bungaroides, population, We recommend that locked gates be placed on fire trails to protect existing populations of broad-headed snakes.

The use of disturbed and undisturbed forest by masked titi monkeys Callicebus personatus melanochir is proportional to food availability

Abstract: The masked titi Callicebus personatus melanochir is a threatened primate, endemic to the Atlantic rainforest of eastern Brazil. The Atlantic rainforest has been reduced to only 5% of its former extent, and only 2% consists of undisturbed forest. The survival of the masked titi monkey is therefore dependent on its ability to utilise disturbed forest habitat. A group of four masked titi monkeys was observed for one year in a plot that contained both disturbed and undisturbed forest. The group used a home range of 22 ha, which comprised 58% undisturbed forest, 31% selectively logged forest and 11% forest that was regrowing after a clear-cut. The titi monkeys did not use the different forest types in proportion to the availability of each within their home range: undisturbed forest was used more than expected from its proportional availability, and disturbed forest was used less than expected. Use of forest types appeared to be determined by the availability of food resources. Undisturbed forest had the most food per unit area and regrowing forest had the least. This study shows that masked titi monkeys may be able to survive in disturbed forest habitats if these areas are of high enough quality to contain sufficient food and other resources.

A successful mass translocation of commensal rhesus monkeys Macaca mulatta in Vrindaban, India

Abstract: Rhesus monkeys Macaca mulatta and people have coexisted for many years in Vrindaban in Mathura District, Uttar Pradesh, India. The monkeys are highly valued both by locals and pilgrims to the area, in part because of their quasi sacred status, but during the last two decades the increasing human and monkey populations of the township have led to severe human-monkey conflict and a decrease in people's respect for the monkeys. To ease this situation one of the world's largest ever translocations of monkeys was undertaken. In 1995, 30 groups of rhesus monkeys, comprising an estimated 1,338 individuals, were recorded in Vrindaban. Of these, 12 groups, a total of 600 individuals, were translocated in January 1997 to eight sites in seminatural forested areas within the same District. A post-translocation study indicated that the translocated monkeys were settled and appeared to be exhibiting normal behaviour. This study indicates that translocation of commensal monkeys to forested areas can be a successful technique for their rehabilitation.

Interacting effects of forest fragmentation and howler monkey foraging on germination and disperal of fig seeds

Abstract: We studied changes in germination rates and dispersal distance of seeds of Ficus perforata and F. lundelli dispersed by howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata mexicana), in a small (40 ha) ‘disturbed’ and a larger (>600 ha) ‘preserved’ tropical rainforest in southern Veracruz, Mexico. The interaction between A. p. mexicana and Ficus (Urostigma) spp. is beneficial for the interacting species and has important implications for their conservation. Howler monkeys gain from the ingestion of an important food source, germination rates of Ficus seeds are improved by passage through the monkeys' digestive tract, and the seeds are more likely to be deposited in a site suitable for germination and development. Seed dispersal distances are relatively larger in the preserved site, with both the size of the forest area and the spatial pattern of Ficus affecting the dispersal process. In a large forest fragment with ‘regularly’ distributed Ficus individuals the howler monkeys move away from the seed source, increasing the probability that the seeds are desposited on a tree other than Ficus, which is important for the germination and future development of a hemiepiphytic species. In a small forest fragment with trees distributed in clumps howlers repeatedly use the same individual trees, and faeces containing seeds may be dropped on unsuitable trees more often. These are key issues when addressing conservation policies for fragmented forests.

Post-nesting migrations of loggerhead turtles Caretta caretta from Georgia, USA: conservation implications for a genetically distinct subpopulation

Abstract: The loggerhead sea turtle Caretta caretta is listed as threatened with extinction on the US Endangered Species Act. Those loggerhead turtles that nest on US beaches from North Carolina to north-east Florida are a genetically distinct subpopulation. This subpopulation is small, and may be declining. To obtain information about the migratory pathways of these turtles we tracked post-nesting movements of five females by satellite from their nesting beach at Wassaw Island, Georgia. Four turtles migrated north of the nesting beach, of which three moved to coastal waters of mid Atlantic states (total distances of 157–1,458 km). Efforts to reduce mortality of northern subpopulations of loggerhead turtles need to focus on identifying and reducing threats in north-east US waters.

Management implications of antelope habitat use in the Kilombero Valley, Tanzania

Abstract: High cattle densities, expanding human settlements and the conversion of miombo woodland into farms and teak plantations are threatening wildlife populations in the Kilombero Valley, Tanzania, and conservation research on this internationally important wetland is required as part of an integrated approach to its future management. The effect of land-use change on antelopes (family Bovidae) was investigated by surveying tracks and dung during three seasons over 1999–2000 in an area of mixed land-use. Use of miombo woodland, grassland and farmland habitats by antelopes was highest during the wet season (April–May), probably representing the movements of animals away from the floodplain. Duiker, puku Kobus vardoni and reedbuck Redunca spp. predominantly used the farmland during the wet season, at which time buffalo Syncerus caffer were more common in the miombo woodland. The findings of this study have three main implications for the conservation of the valley. Firstly, the inadvertent provision of suitable wet season habitats for puku and other small-medium antelopes by rice farmers could lead to higher levels of illegal hunting, and may increase the potential for conflict between agriculture and wildlife. Secondly, the loss of miombo vegetation will most strongly affect the larger species of antelope (sable Hippotragus niger and waterbuck Kobus ellipsiprymnus), which favour open-woodland habitats; future work should therefore determine levels of habitat use by antelopes in and around maturing teak plantations. Thirdly, any management prescriptions to conserve the Kilombero Valley should include the land on the edge of the floodplain.

Mammals on the Sangihe and Talaud Islands, Indonesia, and the impact of hunting and habitat loss

Abstract: Surveys between 1995 and 1999 brought the number of mammal species known to occur on the remote Sangihe and Talaud islands, Indonesia, from 34 to 37, of which 30 are indigenous and 22 are bats. Populations of bear cuscus Ailurops ursinus and Sulawesi small cuscus Strigocuscus celebensis are represented by endemic subspecies, whilst five little-studied species (Talaud Islands flying fox Acerodon humilis, Sangihe tarsier Tarsius sangirensis, Sangihe squirrel Prosciurillus rosenbergi, short-tailed Talaud melomys Melomys caurinus and long-tailed Talaud melomys M. talaudium) are endemic to the archipelago. Two squirrel species were recorded on Sangihe for the first time: Sulawesi dwarf squirrel P. murinus and Sulawesi giant squirrel Rubrisciurus rubriventer. In total, eight species occurring on the islands are categorized as globally threatened on the 2000 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Habitat loss and hunting are the main threats on the Sangihe islands, where only 800 ha of primary forest remain. Large areas of Karakelang, in the Talaud Islands, are still forested, and a 24,669 ha wildlife reserve has been recently established. The main pressure facing mammal species on the Talaud Islands is hunting, particularly mist-netting of fruit bats for local consumption and trade. In order to control hunting and prevent further forest loss and degradation, future conservation efforts should focus on community-based conservation, in particular raising community awareness and increasing law enforcement. Two concurrent projects are now tackling some of these issues.

The decline of the Aeolian wall lizard, Podarcis raffonei : causes and conservation proposals

Abstract: Investigations carried out in the Aeolian Islands (off north-east Sicily) during 1989–99 gathered evidence strongly indicating that the endemic Aeolian wall lizard Podarcis raffonei is close to extinction. Competitive exclusion by the lizard Podarcis sicula, which has been introduced by man, habitat degradation, and possibly reduced genetic variability and inbreeding, were the main causes for the decline of the species. For the Aeolian wall lizard to recover from its threatened status and to prevent further decimation of populations, collection and trade in the species should be prohibited, and an education programme for local people should be promoted. An integrated project involving habitat protection and captive breeding is needed to secure the species in the wild for the future.

First census of the green turtle at Poilão, Bijagós Archipelago, Guinea-Bissau: the most important nesting colony on the Atlantic coast of Africa

Abstract: The island of Poilao in the Bijagos Archipelago, Guinea-Bissau, is known to be an important nesting site for the green turtle Chelonia mydas , but until recently there were no quantitative estimates of the number of clutches deposited annually. In 2000 a survey was carried out to assess the magnitude of nesting, and an estimated 7,400 green turtle clutches were deposited. Four nesting hawksbill turtles Eretmochelys imbricata were also encountered. This study confirmed that Poilao is one of the most important nesting sites for green turtles in the Atlantic, and the largest known nesting colony on the west coast of Africa. Traditionally Poilao has been regarded as a sacred site by the Bijagos people, and this has contributed to the conservation of these turtles. However, the development of fisheries in this region is an emerging threat. To conserve this site a National Marine Park was designated in August 2000.

Exploitation of white-lipped peccaries Tayassu pecari (Artiodactyla: Tayassuidae) on the Osa Peninsula, Costa Rica

Abstract: We studied movements of white-lipped peccaries ( Tayassu pecari , Artiodactyla, Tayassuidae) throughout the Osa Peninsula and their use by local people during 1997–2000, using interview techniques. We draw five main conclusions: 1) White-lipped peccaries living on the Osa Peninsula range within Corcovado National Park for most of the year. 2) Peccaries travel beyond the Park boundaries to the north and south-east of the Peninsula at the end of the wet season when a fruit shortage occurs in Corcovado. 3) The local people hunt peccaries as the herds move through the Peninsula. 4) Current small herd sizes observed by locals in the Peninsula and by researchers in the Park may indicate a decline of the peccary population. 5) Peccaries constitute neither an important source of food nor a source of cash income for local people. We suggest that sustainable use of peccaries in this region is neither realistic nor necessary. Instead of trying to legalize and regulate hunting, effective systems to control illegal hunting should be implemented, especially outside the Park boundary from October to January when the animals are on the move.

Incentives toward conservation of argali Ovis ammon: a case study of trophy hunting in western China

Abstract: We investigated management of wildlife, habitat and the hunting programme in Aksai County, Gansu Province, People's Republic of China, during 1997–2000. Argali Ovis ammon is the focal species both for conservation and hunting. The hunting programme is intended to produce incentives to conserve wildlife and habitat. Poaching, a serious concern throughout western China, has been reduced in recent years in Aksai. Wildlife population trends are unknown because standardized surveys were begun only in 2000. Threats to argali in Aksai include livestock grazing, placer gold mining, and development of a dam, reservoir and aqueduct. The number of hunters participating in the programme (c. 3 per year) could provide considerable funding (c. $60,000 per year), but the allocation of these funds within China has provided too little for conservation at the local level, thus undermining the intended incentive system. Because local wildlife protection officials have been denied both funding and authority to deal with threats to the wildlife, the programme's contribution to conservation has been minor. We recommend that hunters pay fees directly to county-level staff, thus increasing the proportion of funds retained at county-level, and that this added income is used to obtain wildlife grazing rights on important seasonal habitats for argali. These changes would promote local wildlife conservation without the need for additional external funding.

The decline and conservation management of the threatened endemic palms of the Mascarene Islands

Abstract: The conservation status of the five genera population fragmentation, invasive plants and animals,and 11 species of palm endemic to the Mascarene Islands and high levels of seed predation that prevent natural(Mauritius, La Re´union and Rodriques) are reviewed. regeneration. The advantages of in situ management forAll species are threatened with extinction; nine taxa the recovery of these palm populations are discussed.are classified as Critically Endangered and four as Without a long-term conservation programme, utilisingEndangered on the 2000 IUCN Red List. Two taxa both in situ and ex situ management, extinction of wildsurvive as single wild specimens ( Hyophorbe amaricaulis populations will occur.and Dictyosperma album var. conjugatum ); an additionalseven taxa have wild populations of 100 or fewer. Keywords Acanthophoenix , Dictyosperma , ex situ ,Although the historical phase of large-scale forest clear- Hyophorbe , in situ , Latania , Mascarene Islands, palms,ance has passed, the remaining palm populations in

Trial release of Père David's deer Elaphurus davidianus in the Dafeng Reserve, China

Abstract: The Critically Endangered Pere David's deer Elaphurus davidianu became extinct in the wild in China in about 1900, and the only surviving animals were held in captivity at Woburn Abbey in the UK. During 1985–1987, individuals were returned to China, and subsequent growth of the captive population in enclosures at Dafeng Reserve necessitated a trial release of a small group of deer as a prelude to further releases. Seven individuals were released into the unfenced coastal region of the Dafeng Reserve in 1998. Behaviour, daily activity rhythm, habitat selection, activity range and body condition were recorded for six months after release. The deer exhibited initial changes in behaviour, but returned to their pre-release patterns about four weeks after release, and by six weeks after release their body condition had improved compared to their previous condition in captivity. They left the Reserve and began to forage on farmland, causing conflict with local people. Further releases should be into areas with either a natural or artificial boundary in order to avoid unmanageable levels of conflict between the needs of the deer and those of farmers.

High mammalian diversity in the newly established National Park of Upper Niger, Republic of Guinea

Abstract: This paper presents the results of a mammal survey conducted between 1995 and 1997 in the newly established National Park of Upper Niger in the Republic of Guinea, West Africa. Ninety-four species of mammals were recorded in the park area and its environs; 19 of these species were newly recorded or confirmed for Guinea. The fauna of the park includes about 50% of the known mammalian diversity of the country. Among the species found are West African endemics such as the Gambian mongoose Mungos gambianus. The park, although situated in the Guinea savannah belt, includes some remnant forest, which harbours tropical forest mammals such as Thomas's galago Galagoides cf. thomasi, hump-nosed mouse Hybomys planifrons, soft-furred rat Praomys rostratus and flying squirrel Anomalurops sp.. This National Park is a high priority area for the conservation of the vertebrate diversity of West Africa.

Heavy poaching in prime habitat: the conservation status of the West Indian manatee in Nicaragua

Abstract: This study provides an overview of the conservation status of the West Indian manatee Trichechus manatus in Nicaragua, including data on habitat availability, manatee distribution and relative abundance, and current threats. The data is based on surveys from boats and extensive interviews with local people. Nicaragua harbors one of the largest areas of habitat suitable for manatees in Central America. The species has an almost continuous distribution along the country's eastern, Caribbean coast and inland in some watercourses. There are larger groups of manatees in brackish lagoons than in freshwater rivers. Seasonal migrations and lengthy daily travels influenced by tides have been reported. The main threats to these manatees include poaching and incidental drowning in fishing nets, while boat traffic, pollution and habitat loss presently seem to be negligible factors in Nicaragua. Poaching is widespread along the coast and it is estimated that c . 40 manatees are killed annually throughout the country. Enforcement of hunting laws and protected areas is almost non-existent, with the exception of the Southeastern Nicaragua Biosphere Reserve. This may explain why manatees have disappeared from a few areas and become rare in others. Unless restrictions are imposed on poaching and on the use of gill nets within inland wetlands, the West Indian manatee may become rare throughout Nicaragua in the near future.

Density dependence in the camelid Vicugna vicugna : the recovery of a protected population in Chile

Abstract: The vicuna Vicugna vicugna is a wild South carrying capacity of the study area was estimated from the census data and from models based on precipitation American camelid. Following over-exploitation, which brought the species to the brink of extinction in Chile in and local primary productivity. Using the census data, an estimation of carrying capacity as the asymptote of the the 1960s, the population was protected. Since 1975 the population has been censused annually, generating one fitted logistic curve suggested that the vicuna population should reach approximately 26,000 vicunas, whereas of the most extensive long-term census databases for any South American mammal. In this paper we use these estimation when the population growth rate was equated to zero gave a carrying capacity of c. 22,000. Coe's method data, and measures of environmental parameters, to describe the population growth trend of the species and based on local precipitation predicted 31,000 vicuna, whereas Lavenroth's method based on local primary to estimate carrying capacity. Our results indicate that the vicuna has been protected successfully in northern productivity predicted 26,000 vicuna. In reality, the census data showed that the population peaked at 22,463 Chile. The census data reveal that, following protection, the population displayed logistic growth between 1975 vicunas in 1990. The results are discussed in relation to the need for better census techniques and the implications and 1992. Population growth rate declined linearly with population size, which indicates a degree of density of density dependent eCects for the management of the vicuna in Chile. dependence. Density independent factors, such as rain- fall, may also have been important. The principal density dependent eCect observed was that birth rate declined in Keywords Carrying capacity, Chile, density dependence, population growth rate, vicuna, Vicugna vicugna. those family groups with the most breeding females. The

Alternatives for the bulb trade from Turkey: a case study of indigenous bulb propagation

Abstract: In this paper we describe the outcomes of a 10-year project that provided an alternative source of material for the international trade in bulbous plants from Turkey. In the mid 1980s the export of wild bulbs was extensive and was considered to be unsustainable. Building on the opportunities for propagation of snowdrops (Galanthus spp.), this project produced bulbs for trade, taking into account provision of local livelihoods and income generation, utilization of existing trade structures, regulation through national legislation, monitoring of overseas suppliers, and customer sensitization. Three villages and over 250 villagers were ultimately involved in bulb propagation. The project demonstrated that bulbs for an international market can be produced within a village environment to meet CITES criteria for artificial propagation. Through the application of rural development, local horticultural training, international legislation, fair-trade, and environmental consumer issues the project also illustrates the complexities of integrated approaches to trade issues. This paper presents in detail the methods used in developing this model for local plant propagation, and highlights the lessons learnt from the project.