Showing papers in "Oryx in 2009"

Human-felid conflict: a review of patterns and priorities worldwide.

Abstract: Conflict between people and felids is one of the most urgent wild cat conservation issues worldwide, yet efforts to synthesize knowledge about these conflicts have been few. For management strategies to be effective a thorough understanding of the dynamics of human-felid conflicts is necessary. Here we present the results of a cross-species, systematic review of human-felid conflicts worldwide. Using a combination of literature review and geographical information system analyses, we provide a quantitative as well as qualitative assessment of patterns and determinants that are known to influence the severity of human-felid conflicts, and a geographical overview of the occurrence of conflict worldwide. We found evidence of conflict affecting over 75% of the world's felid species. The severity of conflict increases with felid body mass and is of greatest conservation significance to nine species: caracal, cheetah, Eurasian lynx, jaguar, leopard, lion, puma, snow leopard and tiger. We also reveal specific gaps in knowledge about human-felid conflicts, and required actions within this aspect of felid conservation. With only 31% of implemented management strategies having been evaluated scientifically, there is a need for greater and more rigorous evaluation and a wider dissemination of results. Also urgently required are standardized reporting techniques to reduce the current disparity in conflict reporting methods and facilitate resolution of patterns and trends in the scale of human-felid conflict worldwide. This review provides a basis both for further synthesis and for the coordination of human-felid conflict management among researchers, practitioners and organizations.

Approaches to landscape- and seascape-scale conservation planning: convergence, contrasts and challenges

Abstract: Non-government organizations (NGOs), agencies and research groups around the world have developed diverse approaches to conservation planning at the scale of landscapes and seascapes. This diversity partly reflects healthy differences in objectives, backgrounds of planners, and assumptions about data and conservation priorities. Diversity also has disadvantages, including confusion among donors and prospective conservation planners about what to fund and how to plan. To help reduce this confusion, we compared approaches described in separate articles by four major conservation NGOs. We structured our comparison with an 11-stage framework for conservation planning. We found considerable agreement between approaches in their recognition and ways of addressing many planning stages. The approaches diverged most obviously in ways of collecting socio-economic and biodiversity data and identifying explicit conservation objectives. Even here, however, the approaches tend to be complementary and there is potential to combine them in many landscapes and seascapes. Our review emphasizes that systematic methods are having real benefits in guiding effective conservation investments. We finish by outlining two challenges for conservation planning generally: (1) managing the transition from planning to applying conservation actions, and (2) assessing the costs and benefits of conservation planning.

Human–wildlife conflict in northern Botswana: livestock predation by Endangered African wild dog Lycaon pictus and other carnivores

Abstract: We conducted a questionnaire survey among 77 cattle posts and farms to investigate human-carnivore conflicts in northern Botswana, with a particular focus on Endangered African wild dog Lycaon pictus, persecuted throughout their shrinking range in sub-Saharan Africa for allegedly predating livestock. Predator attacks on livestock (n 5 938 conflict reports) represent an economic concern for livestock owners, particularly alleged predation by black-backed jackal Canis mesomelas, which were blamed for 77% of all reported livestock losses. The presence of two known resident packs of wild dogs did not result in corresponding conflict reports with livestock owners, as wild dogs accounted for only 2% of reported predator attacks and largely subsisted on wild prey. Nevertheless, most of these wild dogs were killed in the months fol- lowing this survey. Reported conflicts involving the two largest predator species (lion Panthera leo and spotted hyaena Crocuta crocuta) declined with increasing distance from protected areas. Leaving livestock unattended during the day seems to facilitate predation but kraaling livestock at night reduces predation. Compensation payments for livestock losses did not demonstrably change livestock owners' willingness to coexist with predators. Our results corroborate studies from elsewhere that simple improve- ments in livestock husbandry practices would help mitigate human-carnivore conflicts.

Bats as bushmeat: a global review

Abstract: A questionnaire survey and literature review revealed the extent of hunting of bats for bushmeat in the Old World tropics. High levels of offtake were reported throughout Asia, the Pacific islands and some Western Indian Ocean islands, where fruit bats of the genus Pteropus are eaten extensively. Most hunting in Africa was reported in western states and the largest fruit bat Eidolon helvum was preferred. Insectivorous bats are also eaten, particularly Tadarida in Asia. Hunting is both for local consumption and commercial, sometimes involving cross-border transactions. The high levels of hunting reported and the low reproductive rate of bats indicate there are likely to be severe negative effects on bat populations, and declines of several species are documented. Although there has been only one reported attempt to manage offtake, this indicates that it is possible and apparently successful. Furthermore, voluntary controls on hunting have halted declines in bat numbers. There have been several initiatives to reduce hunting pressure and conserve threatened bat species, mainly on islands that, when sustained, have been successful. More education projects and community-based conservation initiatives should be encouraged together with further attempts at sustainable harvesting in situations where disease risk has been evaluated.

Carnivore conservation at the crossroads

Abstract: Recent assessments of the conservation status of mammals present an alarming picture of ongoing declines, emphasizing the urgent need for informed conservation actions. Global analyses show that among terrestrial mammals, many carnivores are the most threatened (Ceballos et al., 2005; Schipper et al., 2008). The 10 studies of mammalian carnivores in this issue of Oryx (pp. 18–90) provide examples of typical issues of concern from scientific as well as conservation perspectives. Carnivores comprise 287 extant species in 123 genera belonging to 16 families. Most are threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation, as well as by direct hunting for food, curatives or trophies. Carnivores are also indirectly threatened by human hunters, who deplete a wide taxonomic range of the prey of carnivores, from other mammals to fish, through excessive shooting, snaring, netting or other forms of exploitation (Robinson & Bennett, 2000). Prey depletion is a particularly insidious threat because its widespread impact is not immediately obvious. Wild carnivores are charismatic animals that engage human attention for a variety of reasons. Carnivores compete and conflict intensely with humans over food and space across both evolutionary and historical time scales (Inskip & Zimmermann, 2008), cultural perceptions of carnivores are shaped by factors as diverse as fear, admiration and superstition, and carnivores are valued for the utilitarian values of their meat, pelts or tourism potential. Mammalian carnivores present challenges to scientists trying to understand them and to conservationists trying to save them. Because of their position high up in the food chain carnivores tend to occur at low population densities. They also tend to be nocturnal, elusive and occasionally dangerous. Because of such traits the majority remain poorly studied. The resulting paucity of reliable knowledge is impeding species recovery efforts, even for conservation flagship species such as the tiger Panthera tigris, lion Panthera leo and wolf Canis lupus. For many carnivores, beyond anatomical descriptions and coarse range maps we still lack basic knowledge of diet, social organization, community ecology, population biology and genetics. Over the last 2–3 decades the focus of carnivore research appears to have shifted from earlier species-oriented ecology and behavioural studies towards attempts to infer broader macro-ecological or evolutionary patterns through meta-analyses of pre-existing data-sets (Carbone & Gittleman, 2002). However, most meta-analyses provide broad, post hoc generalizations, often based on ad hoc statistical methods. Consequently, the need for ecological knowledge of individual species and conservation contexts remains unfulfilled. We submit that carnivore science and conservation could benefit greatly from a move towards studies that are based on biological models generated a priori and tested against rigorously collected field data using modern likelihood-based or Bayesian inferential frameworks (Bolker, 2008; Royle & Dorazio, 2008). We believe such a shift would also be helpful in making conservation decisions in an adaptive management framework and in advancing the science of carnivore studies. Larger and more predatory carnivore species within the families Felidae, Canidae and Ursidae appear to be suffering the severest population declines and range contractions (Ceballos et al., 2005; Schipper et al., 2008). Studies show that human intolerance of such predatory carnivores is often, however, based on misconceptions about the potential risk they pose to livestock and humans (Treves & Karanth, 2003). Additionally, several carnivore species that are adapted to unique ecological niches or a narrow range of habitats, or have narrow diets, such as the bush dog Speothos venaticus, are also threatened. Populations of vulnerable carnivore species are unable to persist under human land uses that engender conflicts over habitat, space or prey. Mitigation of these conflicts through measures such as exclusion barriers, guarding, financial compensation or elimination of so-called problem animals, is complex and difficult (Treves & Karanth, 2003). Historically, a common consequence of such conflict has been the elimination of carnivores from human-dominated landscapes. Therefore, while post hoc mitigation of conflicts through innovative responses are urgently needed, establishment and maintenance of large nature reserves protected against incompatible human uses remains a key conservation requirement for many carnivore species. Well-known examples of this approach come from India’s recovery projects for tigers and the last surviving population of Asiatic lions. These projects have relied on large-scale, incentive-driven relocation of human settlements to create the relatively large, intact habitats required by these species (Karanth & Gopal, 2005). Unfortunately, in the prevailing context of the global conservation-development paradigm, with its apparent faith in the potential for peaceful coexistence of biodiversity and sustainable use, the strategy of using large reserved areas for carnivore conservation is being downplayed worldwide. On a more positive note, although carnivores face increasing threats, many species do possess demographic traits such as early reproduction, large litter sizes and high K. ULLAS KARANTH and RAVI CHELLAM Wildlife Conservation Society, Bangalore, India. E-mail ukaranth@gmail.com

Bushmeat hunting and use in the Makira Forest, north-eastern Madagascar: a conservation and livelihoods issue.

Abstract: In the 2003 Durban Vision the Malagasy government committed to tripling the amount of protected areas in Madagascar by 2009. This extensive expansion needs to involve an assessment of the potential impacts on the people who rely on forest resources for subsistence. Wildlife for human consumption (bushmeat) is one such resource that has received great attention on mainland Africa but has largely been ignored in Madagascar until recently. In terms of biomass, hunting in Madagascar appears to be on a lesser scale compared to areas of mainland Africa. However, because of the life-history characteristics associated with hunted primate and carnivore species in Madagascar even small-scale hunting is a major threat to long-term conservation. In this study I used semi-structured interviews to quantify annual rates of bushmeat harvest in 14 villages adjacent to the Makira Forest in north-eastern Madagascar. Interviews revealed that 23 mammal species were hunted for consumption, providing a new insight into the scale and frequency of bushmeat use. Harvest data and life-history information were sufficient to allow quantitative assessments of sustainability for four species of lemur (black and white ruffed lemur Varecia variegata, indri Indri indri, eastern bamboo lemur Hapalemur griseus and white-fronted brown lemur Eulemur albifrons) and a species of the carnivore family Eupleridae (fossa Cryptoprocta ferox). Model results suggest hunting of these species is probably unsustainable. This research presents clear evidence that hunting is a major conservation and livelihoods issue in Madagascar and needs to be considered in the planning stages of protected area development to address better the needs of local people.

Designing a resilient network of marine protected areas for Kimbe Bay, Papua New Guinea.

Abstract: The Nature Conservancy takes a strategic and systematic approach to conservation planning. Ecoregional assessments are used to set goals and identify geographical priorities, and Conservation Action Planning is used to develop strategic plans for conservation areas. This study demonstrates how these planning processes were applied at the seascape scale based on a case study of Kimbe Bay, Papua New Guinea. Conservation Action Planning was used to identify key threats and strategies, and systematic conservation planning (similar to that used for ecoregional assessments) was used to design a network of marine protected areas to be resilient to the threat of climate change. The design was based on an assessment of biodiversity and socio-economic values, and identified 14 Areas of Interest that meet specific conservation goals. A detailed community-based planning process is now underway with local communities that own and manage these areas to refine and implement the marine protected area network.

Outcomes, not implementation, predict conservation success

Abstract: To use more effectively the limited resources available for conservation there is an urgent need to identify which conservation approaches are most likely to succeed. However, measuring conservation success is often difficult, as it is achieved outside the project time frame. Measures of implementation are often reported to donors to demonstrate achievement but it is unclear whether they really predict conservation success. We applied a conceptual framework and score-card developed by the Cambridge Conservation Forum (CCF) to a sample of 60 conservation activities to determine the predictive power of implementation measures versus measures of key outcomes (later steps in the models defined in the CCF tools). We show that assessing key outcomes is often more difficult than quantifying the degree of implementation of a project but that, while implementation is a poor predictor of success, key outcomes provide a feasible and much more reliable proxy for whether a project will deliver real conservation benefits. The CCF framework and evaluation tool provide a powerful basis for synthesizing past experience and, with wider application, will help to identify factors that affect the success of conservation activities.

Direct payments for biodiversity conservation in developing countries: practical insights for design and implementation

Abstract: The idea of direct payments for biodiversity conservation in developing countries has generated much debate. Despite substantial experience with related economic instruments in high-income countries such approaches are rare in tropical developing countries, where conservation action is most urgently needed. We explore current experience with the application of direct payments in developing countries through an extensive review and subsequent analysis of the efforts of Conservation International. Our review identifies a broad spectrum of possible direct payment contracts. However, we focus on those involving international conservation interests. Firstly, we develop a framework for the design of direct payment applications, addressing four major aspects: contractual arrangements, definition of conservation services, performance payments, and monitoring and enforcement systems. Secondly, we discuss implementation issues, highlighting the need to consider social factors such as participatory processes, property rights, local institutions and contract legitimacy. Finally, we discuss important considerations for future payment schemes. These include the need for social responsibility, as well as rigorous assessments of effectiveness. We conclude that direct payments show potential as an innovative tool for engaging local communities or resource users in conservation and as a mechanism for channelling global investments in biodiversity conservation services to site-based initiatives.

Ecotourism positively affects awareness and attitudes but not conservation behaviours: a case study at Grande Riviere, Trinidad.

Abstract: Ecotourism is often suggested as a tool for promoting conservation but evidence for its usefulness is mixed. The success of conservation projects is widely recognized to depend upon the positive attitudes of local communities and thus it is important to know if ecotourism affects local perceptions of natural resources and conservation, as these can be important determinants of conservation behaviour. Rapid Rural Appraisal and questionnaire-based interviews were used to investigate this issue in the village of Grande Riviere, Trinidad. This has a community-based ecotourism programme for leatherback turtles Dermochelys coriacea, and is also one of the few sites where the Critically Endangered endemic Trinidad piping-guan Pipile pipile may be sighted. Topics addressed were knowledge and awareness of local conservation issues, focusing on attitudes to the environment in general, turtles and the Trinidad piping-guan. Ecotourism significantly affected perceptions. Villagers showed more awareness and support for turtle conservation than for the piping-guan or any other wildlife. Moreover, those households directly benefiting from the ecotourism industry had better knowledge of local natural resources and greater general awareness of conservation issues (not limited to turtles). Other socio-economic factors such as education and income also affected attitudes and knowledge but the ecotourism effect was still present after accounting for these. Hunting was seen as the main threat to wildlife but was also a popular pastime, illustrating the potential for mismatch between attitudes and conservation behaviours.

The chelonian trade in the largest pet market in China : scale, scope and impact on turtle conservation

Abstract: China is the largest consumer of turtles in the world and international trade has been cited as the greatest threat to Asian turtles. Two main types of trade in live turtles occur in China: for food and traditional Chinese medicine, and for pets, including those for release by Buddhists. The food trade involves the largest quantities of turtles. In recent years, however, the international pet turtle trade has increased dramatically. Yuehe Pet Market in Guangzhou is the largest pet market in China. selling live chelonians and other animals. To understand the potential impacts of the pet trade on chelonians we conducted seven surveys in Yuehe Pet Market from August 2006 to March 2008. Over 39,000 individual chelonians of 61 species were recorded (19.1% of the global total of 319 species). Fifteen (24.6%) of these species are native to China and 46 (75.4%) are native to other countries. Two are designated as grade II key state-protected species in China. Thirty-eight (62.3%) are CITES listed species (four in CITES Appendix I, 26 in CITES II and eight in CITES III). Four are categorized on the IUCN Red List as Critically Endangered, 16 as Endangered and 19 as Vulnerable. Our surveys indicate that increasing demand and the illegal international pet trade could be having a severe impact on chelonian conservation, and we make recommendations for law enforcement and conservation.

Burning to fish: local explanations for wetland burning in Lac Alaotra, Madagascar

Abstract: Lac Alaotra is Madagascar's largest lake and a recognized wetland of international importance under the Ramsar Convention. It supports several Critically Endangered species, including the Alaotran gentle lemur Hapalemur alaotrensis . A principal threat facing the remaining Alaotran wetland is anthropogenic burning of the vegetation during the dry season; a practice now officially banned. A number of reasons have been given to explain this but to date no attempt has been made to investigate the principal motivations for the burning. We present the results of semi-structured interviews (n = 27) and questionnaires (n = 122) in a lakeside town. Seventy-eight percent of interviewees stated wetland burning was performed only or mainly to gather an introduced fish, the Asian snakehead Channa maculata , which buries into the underlying substrate during the dry season. Sixty-eight percent of questionnaire respondents provided a similar explanation. These data provide valuable insights into the reasons for the ongoing burning and should inform the management actions that are required to protect this globally important wetland.

Mammal hunting by the Shuar of the Ecuadorian Amazon: is it sustainable?

Abstract: Although hunting is still critical to the subsistence of many people throughout Amazonia, this practice may not be sustainable under current socio-economic conditions. Native societies are rapidly undergoing socio-economic changes that exacerbate the pressure on wildlife and habitats, indicating the urgent need to assess the impacts of subsistence hunting. In a 12-month study we assessed hunting patterns in four Shuar native communities in the Ecuadorian Amazon. Hunting patterns and impact of hunting activities were documented using interviews, direct observations, self-monitoring records, community landscape mapping and mammal surveys. Although Shuar harvest a wide-range of wildlife species, including insects, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals we only report information about mammals. A total of 3,181 individuals (c. 26,000 kg) of 21 mammal species were hunted during the 12 months. We used three algorithms for assessing the sustainability of hunting: the production, stock-recruitment and harvest models. Of the 21 mammal species hunted there were sufficient data to assess 15, 12 of which were hunted above maximum sustainable levels within the 243 km2 hunting catchment area. The immediate need to conserve wildlife populations is not obvious to Shuar hunters who still enjoy what they perceive to be an inexhaustible source of wild meat. In this context management of Shuar hunting practices to control harvest levels is complex. The assessment presented here is the first step of what needs to be a long-term wildlife management process.

An acute conservation threat to two tarsier species in the Sangihe Island chain, North Sulawesi, Indonesia

Abstract: Until recently the conservation status of seven of the nine species of tarsier on the IUCN Red List was Data Deficient, and determining the status of these species has been a priority. In addition, there are believed to be numer- ous cryptic tarsier taxa. Tarsiers have been proposed as flag- ship species to promote conservation in the biogeographical region that includes Sulawesi and surrounding island chains. Therefore, identifying and naming cryptic tarsier species and determining their conservation status is not only a priority for tarsier conservation but also for regional biodiversity conservation. Two tarsier species, Tarsius sangirensis from Sangihe Island and Tarsius tumpara from Siau Island, occur within the Sangihe Islands, a volcanic arc stretching c. 200 km north from the northern tip of Sulawesi. The geographical information system database from The Nature Conserv- ancy's Sulawesi Ecoregional Conservation Assessment was used in conjunction with field surveys to determine the conservation status of these two species. Our results show that both species are at risk from a small extent of occurrence and area of occupancy, small population size, high risk of volcanism, high human population density, fragmented populations (many of which are in marginal habitat), and lack of conservation areas for either species. In addition, there are no available ex situ conservation options. The Siau population is further threatened by hunting for bushmeat. Our recommendations are that T. sangirensis be categorized as Endangered and T. tumpara, which was included on the 2006-2008 list of the world's top 25 most endangered primates, as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List. that 'the first step in tarsier conservation is to change their Data Deficient status'. Wright went on to identify four high priority taxa, one of which was Tarsius sangirensis. Shekelle & Leksono (2004) proposed a conservation strategy for the Sulawesi biogeographical region using tarsiers as flagship species. They identified 11 populations of tarsiers in the region that warranted further taxonomic investigation, and developed a biogeographical hypothesis for the region that predicted the possible existence of numerous other species. Together with the five species they recognized from the region, this meant that Sulawesi and surrounding island groups were subdivided into 16 or more biogeographical subregions of tarsier endemism. This distribution was hy- pothesized to have resulted from tectonic activity that brought a proto-Sulawesi archipelago together during the Miocene and Pliocene, and which had been further mod- ified by range fragmentation during the Pleistocene. Each of these subregions could hypothetically contain an en- demic tarsier taxon, many of which were suspected to be

Governing bird-keeping in Java and Bali: evidence from a household survey

Abstract: The Indonesian pastime of keeping wild birds as pets is threatening the long-term survival of many songbird species on the islands of Java and Bali. Here we present the results of a large-scale household survey of bird-keeping in the six largest cites of Java and Bali that investigates: (1) the scale and conservation significance of bird-keeping and (2) the relative merits of regulatory versus market-based approaches as means to reduce the enormous demand for wild-caught birds. We found bird-keeping is widespread across social groups, with a rising demand for certain species of conservation importance. Specifically, 35.7% of households surveyed keep a bird and 57.6% of households had kept a bird in the last 10 years. Overall, we project that 584,000 households keep almost 2 million songbirds, the category of most conservation concern. Just over half of songbirds kept are wild-caught. We identified an increase in popularity (since 1999) of three native species (long-tailed shrike Lanius schach , orange-headed thrush Zoothera citrina and white-rumped shama Copsychus malabaricus ) attributable to their popularity in bird song contests. In the latter two species this has caused ‘rolling’ local extinctions across West Indonesia. Given the huge popularity and deep cultural significance of bird-keeping we argue that, in this case, lobbying for stricter regulation is undesirable, impractical and may alienate a potential future supporter base for bird conservation in Indonesia. We argue in favour of a portfolio of softer policy instruments that may include market-based and voluntary mechanisms and engage a wider range of people and organizations.

Plenty of prey, few predators: what limits lions Panthera leo in Katavi National Park, western Tanzania?

Abstract: We present a study from Katavi National Park and surrounding areas that assessed the size and structure of the lion population as a baseline for wildlife management. We assessed lion and prey species density directly by sample surveys that incorporated specific detection probabilities. By using three prey-biomass regression models we also indirectly estimated lion density based on the assumption that these indirect estimates represent the Park's carrying capacity for lions. To identify key factors influencing lion abundance we conducted Spearman Rank correlation and logistic regression analyses, using prey species abundance and distance to Park boundary as explanatory variables. The mean size of the lion population was 31–45% of the estimated carrying capacity, with considerably fewer subadult males observed than expected. Lions generally avoided areas of up to 3 km from the Park boundary and were not observed outside the Park. Abundance of common prey species was significantly correlated with distance to the Park boundary and lion abundance. Lion abundance was most strongly associated with waterbuck abundance/presence. Based on observed lion demography, an evaluation of hunting quotas in adjacent hunting blocks, and anecdotal information on traditional lion hunting, we hypothesize that anthropogenic mortality of lions outside Katavi National Park is affecting lion abundance within the Park. Our results suggest that estimating lion densities with prey-biomass regression models overestimates densities even inside protected areas if these areas are subject to natural and anthropogenic edge effects.

Invasive American mink Mustela vison in wetlands of the Cape Horn Biosphere Reserve, southern Chile: what are they eating?

Abstract: This article discusses invasive American mink Mustela vison and its ecological effect in wetlands of the Cape Horn Biosphere Reserve, southern Chile.

The diversity, status and conservation of small carnivores in a montane tropical forest in northern Laos.

Abstract: Laos harbours globally significant populations of small carnivores, including mustelids and viverrids of conservation concern and felids that are relatively rare or unknown from other parts of Asia However, few have received conservation attention as managers still lack basic information on the status and distribution of even the most common species We conducted the country’s first systematic camera-trap monitoring of carnivores in the Nam Et-Phou Louey National Protected Area on the Laos–Vietnam border, with intensive sampling across 500 km2 from 543 to 2,288 m altitude for 8,499 camera-trap days during 2003–2006 Surveys detected 14 species of small carnivores, including the first record of Owston’s civet Chrotogale owstoni for Laos Preliminary occupancy estimates for the seven most common species ranged from 11% for marbled cat Pardofelis marmorata to 42% for Asian golden cat Pardofelis temminckii Activity patterns of viverrids were primarily nocturnal whereas mustelids, except for hog badger Arctonyx collaris, were diurnal Leopard cat Prionailurus bengalensis was largely nocturnal, marbled cat primarily diurnal and Asian golden cat as likely detected during the day as at night Our results led to the establishment of a contiguous 3,000-km2 protected area core zone and regulations that protect threatened species and control harvest of managed species

Population abundance and apparent survival of the Vulnerable whale shark Rhincodon typus in the Seychelles aggregation

Abstract: Identifying individuals through time can provide information on population size, composition, survival and growth rates. Identification using photographs of distinctive physical characteristics has been used in many species to replace conventional marker tagging. We evaluated photographic records over 7 years of Vulnerable whale sharks Rhincodon typus, at an aggregation in the Seychelles, for estimation of population size and structure. We collected 11,681 photographs of which only 1,149 were suitable for comparison using semi-automated matching software (I3S) of individual spot patterns behind the gills. Photo-identification showed that there was considerable loss of marker tags and enabled an estimation of the rate of tag loss. The combination of photo-identification with marker tagging identified a total of 512 individual sharks over 2001–2007. Of these, there were 115 resightings in subsequent years with two sharks identified in 2001 resighted 5 years later in 2006 and another shark sighted in 2001 resighted in 2007. Estimates of abundance using conventional open mark–recapture models for 2004–2007 were 348–488 sharks (95% confidence interval), with a high level of entry into the population by itinerants. Annual apparent survival probability was 0.343–0.781 over 2004–2007, with an average annual recapture probability of 0.201. These results are the first to suggest a highly transient population of whale sharks around the Seychelles, indicating that international or at least regional-scale conservation approaches are required.

The importance of selectively logged forests for tiger Panthera tigris conservation: a population density estimate in Peninsular Malaysia

Abstract: To obtain information on density of tiger Panthera tigris in selectively logged forest, a 9-month camera-trapping survey was conducted over elevations of 190–850 m in lowland and hill/upper dipterocarp and lower montane forests in Gunung Basor Forest Reserve, Peninsular Malaysia. Capture-recapture sampling methods were used to estimate tiger population density in the Reserve. The number of individual tigers captured was six. Using the M h jackknife estimator the average capture probability per sampling occasion was 0.28 and the corresponding estimate of population size 8 ± SE 1.89. The overall probability of photo-capturing a tiger present in the sampled area was 0.75. Using an approach based on distances between photo-captures, a buffer width of 3.22 km and an effectively sampled area of 308 km 2 was estimated. This resulted in a density estimate of 2.59 ± SE 0.71 adult tigers per 100 km 2 . The results indicate that selectively logged forests such as Gunung Basor Forest Reserve have the potential to accommodate a high density of tigers. Decision makers and conservation planners should not therefore perceive selectively logged forests to have limited conservation value. Further research on the ecology of tigers and their prey in selectively logged forests is urgently needed. Such research would enable conservationists to recommend tiger-friendly management guidelines for sustainable forest management and thereby significantly contribute to tiger conservation in Malaysia.

The Endangered Siberian marmot Marmota sibirica as a keystone species? Observations and implications of burrow use by corsac foxes Vulpes corsac in Mongolia

Abstract: The Siberian marmot Marmota sibirica is a social, colonial-living rodent that ranges widely throughout north- ern Asia. In Mongolia the species has declined substantially in recent years due to overharvesting for fur, meat and body parts, used locally and traded illegally in international markets. The Siberian marmot is often considered a keystone species because its burrows appear to represent an important resource for a variety of taxa, including carnivores. However, few studies have quantified marmot burrow use by other species, although such use may be important for developing conservation strategies. We monitored patterns of burrow use by 10 radio-collared corsac foxes Vulpes corsac during a study in Mongolia during May-November 2006. Corsacs used marmot burrows regularly and at rates greater than expected by chance, suggesting that burrows represent an important resource for foxes and supporting the notion of the Siberian marmot as a keystone species. As corsacs are also declining in Mongolia we contend that targeted patrols of marmot colonies in certain areas would provide a cost- effective means of protecting both species.

A mega-herd of more than 200,000 Mongolian gazelles Procapra gutturosa: a consequence of habitat quality.

Abstract: In September 2007 unusual precipitation patterns created conditions in the eastern steppe of Mongolia (drought conditions in many places and wet conditions in one area) that led to the observation of a historically large Mongolian gazelle Procapra gutturosa herd (> 200,000). A model developed to predict gazelle occurrence based on satellite imagery of vegetation productivity correctly identified the region where the mega-herd was located. Additionally, few gazelles were observed in large portions of adjacent, suitable habitat that either had intense insect activity or were undergoing intensive oil development. Because Mongolian gazelles appear to undertake long-distance nomadic movements to cope with a highly variable environment and food availability, development activities that discourage use of limited suitable habitat may ultimately reduce gazelle fecundity or increase mortality. Landscape level conservation strategies that prevent habitat loss and allow access to all of the grasslands seem preferable to strategies that focus on enhancing a handful of protected areas.

A demographic description of the recovery of the Vulnerable Spanish imperial eagle Aquila adalberti

Abstract: The population of the Vulnerable Spanish imperial eagle Aquila adalberti has experienced a gradual recovery from 38 pairs (1974) to 198 (2004) We analysed the spatial and temporal variation of the demographic parameters for 1981–2004 Annual productivity was 119–132 chicks per female and adult survival rate 0918–0986 Survival during the post-fledging period was 0894 and the annual survival rate of the dispersing individuals was 0561 Three phases of population evolution were distinguished: growth (1981–1993), stability or slight decrease (1994–1999) and growth (2000–2004) Variation in adult survival seems to explain this pattern for the first two periods However, a large disparity between the observed growth rate and the modelled population growth in 2000–2004 is best explained if we assume that a decrease in the age of recruitment took place This is supported by the recent increase in the frequency of non-adult birds in breeding pairs The survival of unpaired eagles in dispersal areas is becoming more important for the maintenance of current population growth Spatial variation of adult survival and breeding success is not congruent with the observed growth rate of the population, which suggests the existence of an important flow of individuals between populations These results highlight the importance of addressing the conservation of the species from a global perspective and the need to focus on adult survival in breeding territories and on non-adult survival in dispersal areas

Identifying potential conservation areas for felids in the USA and Mexico: integrating reliable knowledge across an international border

Abstract: There are three species of Neotropical cats whose northernmost distribution reaches the USA-Mexico border region: the jaguar Panthera onca, ocelot Leopardus pardalis and jaguarundi Herpailurus yagouaroundi. To ensure the long-term viability of Neotropical cat populations in this region it is imperative to identify current distribution and status in the northern limits of their range to conserve important populations effectively. The purpose of this study was to construct a blueprint of priority conservation areas for each species in the border region. This was done by (1) compiling reliable sightings for each species from the early 1900s to 2003, (2) conducting field surveys to ascertain species presence, and (3) conducting a geographical infor- mation system based habitat mapping workshop in which 29 scientists and conservationists provided information on the distribution and status of each species. Participants were asked to delineate and describe specific areas in the border region where historical and recent sightings of Neotropical cats have occurred, resulting in a compilation of 864 felid sightings of which 283 where reliable and had physical evidence. Twenty-one Cat Conservation Units and seven Cat Conservation Corridors were identified as areas in which to concentrate efforts for protecting felids. Only 8.9% of these Corridors and 1.1% of the Units currently have any protection. An additional 12 Corridors and 12 Units were identified as areas requiring further study.

Advancing the case for microbial conservation

Abstract: The majority of the biomass and biodiversity of life on the Earth is accounted for by microbes. They play pivotal roles in biogeochemical cycles and harbour novel metabolites that have industrial uses. For these reasons the conservation of microbial ecosystems, communities and even specific taxa should be a high priority. We review the reasons for including microorganisms in conservation agenda. We discuss some of the complications in this endeavour, including the unresolved argument about whether microorganisms have intrinsic value, which influences some of the non-instrumental motivations for their conservation and, from a more pragmatic perspective, exactly what it is that we seek to conserve (microorganisms, their habitats or their gene pools). Despite complications, priorities can be defined for microbial conservation and we provide practical examples of such priorities.

Spatial and temporal variation in meat and fish consumption among people in the western Serengeti, Tanzania: the importance of migratory herbivores

Abstract: Human-wildlife interactions play an important role in shaping perceptions and conservation paradigms and the livelihoods in villages neighbouring protected areas. These interactions also determine the future survival of the wildlife in the face of increasing pressure due to high human population increase characterising most countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Most rural people in sub-Saharan Africa are agropastoral, combining small scale farming with animal husbandry, or they are purely agropastoralists or farming who relies on natural resources for sustenance.The negative impacts from wildlife to humans may include crop damage, attacking and killing livestock and humans, competing for game species or acting as diseases reservoirs. Humans may affect wildlife through a wide range of lethal methods such as shooting, poisoning, trapping or snaring, habitat modification, encroachment or diseases exchange between wildlife and livestock.Illegal hunting using traditional weapons is wide spread in communities surrounding areas rich of wildlife where in some countries in Africa (i.e. Liberia) up to 75% meat protein is derived from wildlife. The main factors attributing to high consumption of bushmeat is local availability, easy catch-ability (wire snares, pitfall traps), affordability and the consequent household savings.This thesis evaluates the conflicts between human and wildlife in the human-wildlife interface using the western Serengeti as a case study. The first part of the thesis focuses on the conflict related to utilization of natural resources and livestock depredation whereas the second part focuses on the dietary contribution of bushmeat to local people, bushmeat experience and utilization. Local people living close to protected areas are rational when it comes to the illegal utilization of natural resources because they consider the benefits and costimplications. The bushmeat hunters, especially, know in advance which areas in the protected areas are profitable at the same time consider the cost of being arrested and the distance they need to walk to the profitable areas. While illegal hunting can take place far in the park, livestock keepers avoid grazing inside the park because they know the consequences (penalties and fines) of utilizing the pasture inside the protected areas illegally.The local people living close to protected areas consume more meat meals during the period when the wildebeest are in the village proximities than when the herds are far in the southern plains. This further proves the rationality of illegal bushmeat hunters when planning for hunting trips (the benefits versus cost). In contrast, the fish meals in the villages located close to protected areas but far from Lake Victoria decrease with influx of migratory herbivores, which suggest that fish and meat complement each other when the distance from the sources fluctuates. This was proved true when test-persons from villages close, intermediate and distant from the nearest national park boundary were given pieces of meat in a combination of wild ungulates and beef to rank the meat and species recognition according to the perceived taste. While the test-persons from distant villages preferred beef to all, the test-person from villages close to national park boundary prefer topi and those in the intermediate villages prefer impala. This suggests long term experience with beef to distant test-persons as no other source of meat is locally available in the area other than livestock meat and fish.Wild carnivores are considered to be responsible for livestock losses in the villages surrounding the protected areas. The results from the current study in the villages surrounding the western Serengeti show that among the wild carnivores reported to kill livestock, 97.7% of all reported claims was spotted hyena, being responsible for 98.2%.Spotted hyenas are nocturnal animals capable of commuting up to 80 km from their territory areas and are the most numerous large carnivore species in the Serengeti ecosystem, mainly targeting goats and sheep. To evaluate the level of conflicts between carnivores and human on livestock depredation, enumeration of livestock loss causes was conducted for subsequent comparison. In all villages, diseases were responsible for major loss of livestock.Based on the findings the current study recommends better education on wildlife conservation, livestock husbandry practices and extension. A change in wildlife policy in favour of compensation would reduce the retaliatory killing of carnivores in the villages. Livestock keepers should improve the night holding enclosures to reduce livestock depredation by nocturnal predators. The findings recommend further study on the alternative sources of meat protein to local communities living close to protected areas. Last but not least, I recommend a special conservation attention to resident herbivore population close to village proximities.

Movements of translocated captive-bred and released Critically Endangered kaki (black stilts) Himantopus novaezelandiae and the value of long-term post-release monitoring.

Abstract: Translocation outcomes for mobile species can be affected by post-release movement of individuals, yet few population reintroduction and supplementation projects consider propensity to move as a selection criterion when selecting individuals to release or sites for release. We investigate the influence of release age (juvenile or subadult), the size of the release group and the size of the wild population at the release site on movements of Critically Endangered kaki (black stilt) Himantopus novaezelandiae. Over 460 subadult and juvenile kaki have been released during 12 years at nine sites in the Waitaki Basin, New Zealand, with the aim of supplementing specific sub-populations. Among the survivors that reached breeding age, 32% of released kaki ended up away from their release sites, i.e. away from the subpopulations they were intended to augment and 15% of these birds were in unmanageable areas where monitoring cannot take place. Kaki released as juveniles (2–3 months) made more long moves and moved further from the release site during 2 months post-release. The presence of conspecifics affected behaviour after release: released birds were more likely to remain closer to the release site when the size of the wild population at the release site was large, and kaki released in larger groups were more likely to make more longer moves. Despite initial differences in mobility, long-term monitoring revealed equal proportions of 2-year old survivors that had been released as juveniles and subadults returning and being observed consistently at release sites, emphasizing the value of long-term monitoring in informing release strategies for population restorations.

Camera trapping of large mammals in Yenice Forest, Turkey: local information versus camera traps

Abstract: Information on large mammals in Turkey is limited, and widely applicable, reliable field methods need to be used to gather appropriate data for conservation and management. To evaluate local information on mammal species we conducted interview and ground surveys, followed by a camera trap survey, during January–May 2006 in Yenice Forest, a globally important and intact region for mammals in Turkey. Interviews with local people provided information on the occurrence of wolf Canis lupus, brown bear Ursus arctos, wild cat Felis silvestris, red fox Vulpes vulpes, Eurasian badger Meles meles, pine marten Martes martes, roe deer Capreolus capreolus, wild boar Sus scrofa and Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx. The ground and camera trap surveys confirmed the presence of all these species except lynx. In addition, the camera trap survey documented the presence of jackal Canis aureus and brown hare Lepus europaeus, signs of which were not found in the ground survey and whose presence was not known by local people. Local information on wildlife is important but management and conservation initiatives should not solely depend on such information and, as our study indicates, interview surveys cannot replace field research. The Turkish Ministry of Environment and Forestry needs to consider the establishment of a protected area large enough to secure the future of the large mammals of Yenice Forest.

Can domestic dogs save humans from tigers Panthera tigris

Abstract: Attempts were taken to reduce tiger-human conflict in and around the Sundarbans, Bangladesh, from August 2005 to January 2007 using domestic dogs. Keeping one tethered dog with each group of people working in the mangrove forest was found to be effective in reducing the risk of being attacked by tigers Panthera tigris. The dogs warned people of the presence of tiger. The responses of 40 dogs were recorded and verified and it was found that the dogs could detect the presence of any nearby sizeable wild animal with a success rate of 92% but they could not always distinguish tiger from wild boar Sus scrofa or spotted deer Axis axis. Success rate in distinguishing the tiger was 62%. The dogs were particularly useful for honey gatherers because when they smoke the honeycomb visibility becomes poor and they become more vulnerable to attack by tigers.

Conservation status of crocodiles in Ghana and Côte-d'Ivoire, West Africa.

Abstract: The population and conservation status of crocodiles throughout West and Central Africa is poorly known and the IUCN Crocodile Specialist Group's highest priority recommendations are country status surveys and examination of potential threats. This study presents survey data and a review of the conservation status of the Nile crocodile Crocodylus niloticus, slender-snouted crocodile Mecistops cataphractus and African dwarf crocodile Osteolaemus tetraspis at 67 sites throughout Ghana and Cote d'Ivoire. No crocodiles were sighted in 31.5% of surveys but, where encountered, densities averaged 0.90 crocodiles sighted km-1. The most frequently encountered crocodile was C. niloticus (94% of sightings) with population structure highly biased to individuals < 1 year of age (41.4%). Only 14 M. cataphractus were observed. Local informants report that crocodiles were more common 10–20 years ago than at present. There is now little commercial harvest, which includes limited use in the bushmeat and traditional medicine markets, because of the crocodile's scarcity. Habitat encroachment and incidental bycatch in fishing devices appear to be the major threats. Actions needed to improve the conservation status of crocodile populations in both countries, and throughout the region, are discussed.