Showing papers in "Performance enhancement and health in 2012"

Achieving the Olympic ideal: Preventing doping in sport

Abstract: In the 1960s, prohibitionist ‘anti-doping’ policy was introduced to curtail the use of illicit performance enhancing substances and methods in sport. Since then, anti-doping attention and funding has been directed towards detection-based deterrence activities. However, it is now acknowledged that investment in long-term, values-based education programmes may be more appropriate. Unfortunately, research into prevention and education is in its infancy, with very little indication of best practice. Therefore, in the interim, we must draw from more developed social science research fields. The following commentary highlights the findings of a recent systematic review of factors which, to-date, have been identified as the most successful preventive approaches across four established social domains; bullying, alcohol, tobacco and social drug use. Although the systematic review highlighted no ‘magical ingredients’ for ensuring effectiveness, there were common ‘recipes for success’, including (i) targeting young participants – when attitudes and values are forming; (ii) providing interactive material that develops social skills; (iii) monitoring and delivering programmes with high degrees of fidelity; (iv) basing delivery on well-trained staff; (v) incorporating long-term ‘booster sessions’ to reinforce key messages. Now, research should contribute to an evidence-base that allows the discovery, application and evaluation of key elements of effective anti-doping education.

“Will steroids kill me if I use them once?” A qualitative analysis of inquiries submitted to the Danish anti-doping authorities

Abstract: Background The Danish strategy for fighting the use of anabolic androgenic steroids in fitness centres is likely the most comprehensive of its sort in the world. It is instituted in the national anti doping organisation, Anti Doping Denmark (ADD), and consists of doping controls, educational campaigns, and anonymous counselling through a web-based email service. Aim and method Inquiries that were submitted to ADD's web-based counselling service over an 18-month period were explored with the aim to identify and analyse differences in concerns and approach to the counselling service. Two categories of inquiries were the focus of attention: (1) those addressing side effects of anabolic steroids and (2) those addressing concerns for receiving a positive doping test after the use of supplements. Results and discussion In the first category four different types of approaches were identified and inquirers’ concerns analysed: (a) those that lacked knowledge on anabolic steroids, (b) those that had experienced side effects, (c) those that expressed knowledge of anabolic steroids, and (d) those that presented potential harm reduction dilemmas for the service. The second category revealed noteworthy concerns as a result of the legislation on the issue. Conclusion The approach to the counselling service and the knowledge of health consequences of the drugs consumed differed substantially between the two categories and groups of inquiries. Implications In order to educate the target group about anabolic steroids there is a need for the involved organisations to consider harm reduction policies in adjunct with the often applied zero tolerance approach.

The historical roots of today's problems: A critical appraisal of the international anti-doping movement

Abstract: Embarking from the position that the past offers potentially useful insights into contemporary policy problems, this article traces the international anti-doping movement from 1960 to today. In doing so, it argues that today's problems can be traced to a decision made in the 1960s by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) to portray performance enhancement as an existential threat to the ideals of sport. Not surprisingly, that position resulted in a moral crusade in which the IOC's Medical Commission sought to protect athletes from making “evil” decisions to seek pharmacological assistance. Given the likelihood that they would fail to pass ideological muster under this focus, policies based on other considerations, including health, were given inadequate attention. The regulatory framework based on laboratory analysis and judicial punishment that was instead put in place has failed in multiple dimensions. This article concludes, however, that little progress will be made until anti-doping authorities become more flexible in their thinking.

Challenging human and sporting boundaries: The case of Oscar Pistorius

Abstract: The controversy surrounding Oscar Pistorius's disputed eligibility for Olympic participation serves here as a focal point for a number of debates regarding the ethics of human enhancement, conceptions of ability and disability, and the transformative effects of technology upon the nature of sports competition itself. A world beating Paralympics athlete, Pistorius attempted to gain eligibility to represent South Africa in the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games. An account is given as to the process of his initial rejection, based upon scientific experiments that argued his performance was unacceptably “boosted”, and the subsequent successful appeal that undermined the scientific basis of the judgement while leaving unchallenged the deeper question of the role that biotechnology might play in transforming athletic performance. We show how what began as an eligibility dispute in the sports arena, became a political debate that raised fundamental questions about how society at large regarding the place for “technological” and “enhanced” humans, and of performers of exceptional ability.

Doping, risk and abuse: An interview study of elite athletes with a history of steroid use

Abstract: Risk behaviour such as the abuse of alcohol and drugs has been associated with doping in sport. This article investigates doping use in relation to substance abuse, health risks, risks of being caught in a doping control, and other risk behaviours, in a qualitative interview study of 11 Swedish elite athletes sanctioned for using anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) during their sports careers. The interviews show that most respondents have not experienced any serious negative side effects due to AAS use, and report several positive effects. The respondents were using moderate doses to avoid health risks, and their use was characterised by conscious risk management to avoid being caught in doping control. Most respondents were not abusing other substances than AAS, and did not perceive themselves as risk-takers. The results point to the possibility that doping use in sport needs to be studied by methods and perspectives other than as abusive and/or health risk behaviour. Instead, the internal logic of sport and sport specified norms have to be visualised and analysed to understand doping phenomena.

Body conceptions and virtual ethnopharmacology in an online bodybuilding community

Abstract: This study aimed to establish the common body conceptions of a serious online bodybuilding community and determine the role of the online forum in ‘virtual ethnopharmacology’: the word of ‘mouse’ sharing of drug protocols. Data were obtained from an online discussion forum dedicated to muscular development, and evaluated using a narrative-based analytical method. Forum postings were collected over a period of 36 months, transposed to software, and thematically coded. The results expose extreme, and sometimes contradictory, body-image constructs held by a devoted muscle-building community obsessed with muscular hypertrophy. Preoccupations with associated accoutrements were also identified, including nutrition and supplements, training regimes and anabolic androgenic substances. This study provides insight into the extreme body conceptions of bodybuilders normally restricted to gym insiders. It also reveals the significance of online platforms in the distribution of pharmacological knowledge and practice.

Expanding the Female Athlete Triad concept to address a public health issue

Abstract: Research into the Female Athlete Triad (FAT) often posits that the condition is one of the unwanted consequences of increased physical activity and the prevailing preference for a lean body among female athletes; as well as the result of mounting pressure for constant performance improvement, which is often coupled to a misconception that low body weight would help to achieve this goal. This paper challenges the prevailing concept of the FAT for being inexact and over-specific, giving the impression that only athletes are affected by this condition, whilst the narrow focus on the co-occurrence of disordered eating–amenorrhea–osteoporosis can potentially lead to incorrect diagnoses of females suffering from, or at risk of developing, the condition. As the common underlying factor in athletes and non-athlete females suffering from FAT conditions is chronically low energy availability (via increased physical activity and/or disordered or restricted eating), we propose a unified framework that focuses on this common characteristic. Under the umbrella term ‘Female Energy Deficiency’ (FED), the expanded FAT and related concepts such as Anorexia Athletica and atypical eating disorder may be reconciled. The suggested framework can facilitate the understanding of this convoluted field within and outside the athletic community and offers flexibility for future developments. To support our proposition, we discuss the: i) expansion of the components to capture the extent and depth of this health condition, ii) expansion of the ‘at risk’ population, and iii) effective prevention, along with the need for early diagnosis and treatment.

Athletes’ perceptions of performance enhancing substance user and non-user prototypes

Abstract: Aim This study explored athletes’ perceived prototypes of performance enhancing substance (PES) users and non-users to facilitate a broader understanding of the risk/protective factors for doping use. Method A cross-sectional study was conducted involving n = 147 current/ex-competitive athletes. Following ethical approval, athletes (mean age = 25.51, SD = 8.47 years; 40.8% male) from 30 sports completed an online open-ended questionnaire. Participants were required to describe their perceived positive and negative images of PES users and non-users. Inductive content analysis established the main themes within the data. Results The perceived prototypes of PES users and non-users were most commonly related to: motivation to succeed, confidence, commitment, temperament, fear of competition, rule abiding, reliability and sociability. Characteristically, PES users were seen as motivated, confident, unreliable and rule breakers, whereas non-users were perceived to be role models, reliable and risk averse. Conclusion The results suggest athletes’ perceptions of PES user characteristics may not be solely negative. Athletes who perceive PES user prototypes favourably may be vulnerable to dopingvia motivation that is elicited from future possible selves. Therefore, athletes’ perceptions of PES user and non-user prototypes may act as risk/protective factors for doping. Implications Tailored anti-doping should target athletes’ prototype perceptions to enhance the prevention of doping in sport.

The attitudes and perceptions of adolescent track and field athletes toward PED use

Abstract: The practice of enhancing athletic performance through the use of extraneous artificial means is as old as competitive sport itself. Very little research assessing the attitudes of adolescent strength/power athletes concerning ergogenic aids exists. As national anti-doping organizations (NADOs) and even state and local athletic associations adopt preventative measures to complement detection-based deterrence methods, understanding adolescent athlete attitudes towards drugs in sport will take on a new importance. This study was conducted to measure athlete attitudes in the sport of track and field (specifically throwers) toward performance enhancing drug (PED) use and drug testing using the theory of planned behavior (TPB) framework. The sample was comprised of 46 males (mean age = 15.9, SD = 2.2 years) and 52 females (mean age = 15.8, SD = 1.9 years). A 4-step hierarchical regression was employed to determine how study variables predicted intent to use PEDs. Gender did not predict significant variance in intent (R2 = .04; p = .06), but the theory of planned behavior constructs (R2 change = .46; p

Psychogenic urine retention during doping controls: Consequences for elite athletes

Abstract: Psychogenic urine retention during doping controls (PURD) refers to an athlete's inability to urinate during a doping control. This paper reports PURD to occur quite frequently in elite athletes, investigates the relationship to the clinical disorder of paruresis (PAR), and investigates its relation to recovery, performance, and self-perception of professionalism and athletic excellence. Furthermore, a scale developed especially for the close description and measurement of PURD is presented. A questionnaire was used for measuring paruresis. The results are based on two online and one paper and pencil study involving 222 German-speaking athletes from various sports. The results indicate that 60% of these athletes have experienced psychogenic urine retention during doping controls, with only 39% of them showing symptoms of paruresis. PURD impacts athlete recovery and self-perception of professionalism and athletic excellence. Suggestions for psychological interventions and recommendations for improving the doping control system are given.

The fight against fitness doping in sports clubs – Political discourses and strategies in Denmark

Abstract: This article focuses on the anti-doping policies led in Danish fitness centers in a sport for all context. Fitness, an ever growing training form is gaining in popularity and has in this context been adopted as a training activity by DGI, one of the leading sports for all organization in Denmark. As a result of this gain in popularity, fitness activities are not only offered in commercial fitness centers but also in fitness centers attached to sport for all clubs. This development has emancipated a focus on doping and thereby in the establishing of anti-doping policies in sport for all clubs. Denmark is one of the few countries who illegalizes doping in fitness centers and who tests its members for doping. This article contributes with a discussion concerning the challenges, DGI, as a sport for all organization encounters in relation to the anti-doping policies and its objectives of fostering health, personal development and a sense of community. This contribution debates whether the national anti-doping policies fits to the current situation of the club based fitness centers and if the policies comply with the centers aims and ideologies, i.e. with DGI's objectives and philosophy of sport for all. This debate is based on survey and interview data gathered during a research project (2009–2012) on body management and doping in Danish fitness centers.

Bulimic practices and alcohol consumption: Performance enabling and performance enhancing mechanisms in nineteenth-century British sport

Abstract: Search of contemporary documents and secondary literature based on primary source material has revealed that nineteenth-century British jockeys faced health problems because of wasting forced on them by the low weights assigned to the horses that they rode, a situation aggravated by an over supply of riders in a highly competitive labour market. A second investigation using similar materials showed that nineteenth-century British sportsmen more generally were advised to drink alcohol to aid their performance, particularly in events requiring stamina. A third line of enquiry involving biographies and the press suggests that weight-watching and alcohol consumption still influence the careers of modern sportsmen.