Showing papers in "Performance enhancement and health in 2013"

To dope or not to dope: Elite athletes’ perceptions of doping deterrents and incentives

Abstract: Aim This study aims to examine the circumstances which athletes say affect their (hypothetical) considerations of whether to dope or not and explore the differences between athletes of different gender, age and sport type. Methods 645 elite athletes (mean age: 22.12; response rate: 43%) representing 40 sports completed a web-based questionnaire. Participants were asked to imagine themselves in a situation in which they had to decide whether to dope or not to dope and then evaluate how different circumstances would affect their decisions. Results Multiple circumstances had an effect on athletes’ hypothetical decisions. The most effective deterrents were related to legal and social sanctions, side-effects and moral considerations. Female athletes and younger athletes evaluated more reasons as deterrents than older, male athletes. When confronted with incentives to dope, the type of sport was often a more decisive factor. Top incentives were related to qualified medical assistance, improved health or faster recovery from injury, the low risk of being caught and the threat posed to an elite career. Conclusions Our results reveal that numerous circumstances affect athletes’ thoughts on doping and athletes of different gender, age and sport type reacted differently to a variety of circumstances that may potentially deter or trigger doping. Particularly notable findings were the potential role of doctors in athletes’ doping and that the current punitive anti-doping approach seems to deter athletes, although the fear of social sanctions was almost as great a deterrent. Implications Anti-doping prevention strategies should be diversified to target specific groups of athletes.

The doping mindset—Part I: Implications of the Functional Use Theory on mental representations of doping

Abstract: Doping is typically referred to by some legal/moral heuristics, labelling the activity illegal and unfair, and condemning doping users as cheats and rogues Whilst these heuristics accurately reflect the general social norms and the official stance, qualitative research suggests that they may be in conflict with the way doping user athletes think, seeing doping as a morally questionable but effective means to achieving performance goals Congruently, quantitative studies show that athletes’ mental representations of doping are more closely aligned with substances representing functionality than legality, and they follow the behavioural pathways athletes choose with regard to doping use and revealing information about it As long as the dominant quantitative research paradigm follows the legal/moral route, the incongruence between reality and the faulty assumptions about reality limits the ecological validity of the research findings This concept paper argues for progressing quantitative social cognition research with new models, measurement tools and methodologies that shift away from the dominance of moralistic frames To facilitate this progress, two inter-related conceptual models are proposed The first is an incremental-functional model of doping to reflect the motivated, goal-driven and progressive nature of athletes’ involvement in performance enhancing practices The second is a model of an athlete doping mindset which conceptualises the link between the goal as performance enhancement and the functional and moral aspects of doping as purposive, goal-driven behaviour to enable empirical testing Quantitative investigations into doping-related social cognition should capture the moral-functional duality and acknowledge functionality to make meaningful contributions to anti-doping efforts

Substance use to enhance academic performance among Australian university students

Abstract: Use of substances to enhance academic performance among university students has prompted calls for evidence to inform education and public health policy. Little is known about this form of drug use by university students outside the US. A convenience sample of n= 1729 Australian university students across four universities responded to an exploratory on-line survey. Students were asked about their lifetime use of modafinil, prescription stimulants (e.g. methylphenidate), supplements (e.g. ginkgo biloba), illicit drugs (e.g. speed), relaxants (e.g. valium) and caffeine in relation to enhancing study performance. The results show that Australian students report using substances for study purposes at a higher lifetime rate than observed among US or German students. The main reasons for use were to improve focus and attention, and to stay awake. Use of substances to enhance study outcomes was correlated with faculty of study, attitude and use of other substances. These results point to the need to develop Australian evidence to guide policy or regulatory responses to student use of substances to enhance academic performance. © 2013 Elsevier Ltd.

Pressures to perform: An interview study of Australian high performance school-age athletes’ perceptions of balancing their school and sporting lives

Abstract: High performance school-age athletes struggle to balance the demands of their sporting and educational roles. They are like “hyphenated” individuals striving to deal with more than one life. This investigation examines the views of talented athletes who are full-time school students to elicit their perspectives of how they deal with the pressures to perform in these two different arenas. Previous published research on this topic has not included athletes’ views or “given voice” to school-age high performance athletes’ perceptions of how they balance two full-time lives. This study incorporated a cross-sectional design using qualitative techniques in an interpretivist paradigm. Data collection was through interviews using Livescribe™ pen. NVivo 9.2™ was used to analyse interviews from nine current and 10 former school-age high performance athletes (n = 19) across a range of sports. Findings were categorised into five themes: physical, social, educational, psychological and economic issues. In particular participants in this study identified specific problems they experienced with physical and social issues of: tiredness, nutritional awareness, procrastination, and personal sacrifices. All participants indicated they wanted to pursue both their education and sport, reinforcing the Element theoretical construct that doing both connects their sense of identity, purpose and well-being. Implications for policy and practice in schools and in sports are discussed with a view to identifying the characteristics that define an ‘athlete friendly school’. Research findings from this study also provide suggestions about how these young athletes, their parents, and teachers can optimise the dual-demands and pressures on these athletes’ lives.

Recreational drug use and sport: Time for a WADA rethink?

Abstract: This paper examines current policies towards drug use in sport to evaluate their appropriateness. The focus is on the World Anti-Doping Agency's (WADA's) attitudes and policies towards athletes’ use of recreational drugs. Since recreational drugs such as marijuana are not performance-enhancing, one of the most frequently used arguments to justify doping controls – that those involved in drug use derive an unfair advantage over other competitors – cannot be used to justify controls on the use of such drugs. Given this, it is suggested that the attempt to control the use of marijuana within a sporting context is best understood in terms of the growing concern about drug ‘abuse’ within the wider society. The paper further suggests that the WADA has used the ‘spirit of sport’ argument to reach beyond traditionally accepted sporting concerns. In this regard, WADA is using anti-doping regulations to police personal lifestyle and social activities that are unrelated to sporting performance. On this basis, it is concluded that WADA's focus and resources should return to enforcing sporting values related to doping rather than policing athletes’ lifestyles, and it is therefore suggested that the ban on marijuana and similar recreational drugs should be lifted.

Coherence of drug policy in sports: Illicit inclusions and illegal inconsistencies

Abstract: Anti-doping regulation has become a critical element of contemporary sport, conveying what substances and methods athletes may use. Although this form of regulation is often synonymous with banning performance enhancing substances and methods, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), the global authority tasked with formulating policies on drug use in sports also regulates illicit drugs, including those considered non-performance enhancing. This paper examines how the inclusion of illicit drugs on the WADA Prohibited List falls under the agency's mandate by focusing on how the agency justifies the prohibition of substances more generally. In so doing, it highlights inconsistencies in the criteria used to evaluate whether or not substances should be prohibited. After critically considering WADA's criteria, this paper posits a way to reconcile the inconsistencies. It suggests that aligning the criteria with existing claims that doping is a broader health concern provides a way for WADA to clarify ambiguities around why substances are on the WADA Prohibited List and better communicate why it regulates illicit non-performance enhancing drugs.

Audio assistive technology and accommodations for students with visual impairments: Potentials and problems for delivering curricula and educational assessments

Abstract: Audio assistive technology and testing accommodations have become an increasingly prevalent and potentially useful means of promoting inclusivity in education. Technologies such as text-to-speech and other forms of audio information representation have helped to make curricula more accessible to people with visual impairments and other disabilities. Auditory accommodations in educational testing have also been implemented in an attempt to ensure equitable access to educational evaluations for people with disabilities. The potential benefits of audio assistive technology and accommodations notwithstanding, barriers remain to the implementation of audio in education for people with disabilities. Concerns with validity in audio tests, technical difficulties in the delivery of audio, and general stigma associated with the use of assistive technology and accommodations present formidable challenges that must be met before the full potential of audio assistive technology can be realised. This review examines current practices, potentials, and problems with the use of audio assistive technology and accommodations in educational settings.

The construction of a policy: The World Anti-Doping Code's ‘spirit of sport’ clause

Abstract: The ‘spirit of sport’ clause is the central justification for the World Anti-Doping Agency's (WADA) Code. While debates have arisen regarding the clause's legitimacy since its inclusion in the first 2003 Code, those debates have treated the clause in the abstract, divorced from the specific historical forces that shaped its creation. The aims of this paper are to highlight specific events that influenced the creation of the ‘spirit of sport’ clause and summarise the roles and motivations of those individuals who created it. Based on archival documents, secondary sources, and interviews with people who played important roles in the creation of the clause, specific historical events from 1988 to 2003 shaped the creation of the ‘spirit of sport’. Events in Canada were crucial, including Ben Johnson's famous 1988 victory in the Summer Olympic Games and the ensuing ‘Dubin Inquiry’ into the state of Canadian sport. The Inquiry led to the creation of the Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sport (CCES) and the CCES's “spirit of sport” campaign. While the campaign itself lived a relatively short life, the language from it was transferred to WADA's Code as the organization's ‘Code Project Team’ prepared the Code between 2000 and 2003. Grappling with problems and inconsistencies in existing anti-doping policies, the ‘spirit of sport’ language provided a way of dealing with those issues while simultaneously promoting a ‘values-based’ image of sport. This paper presents this history and draws implications regarding the ‘spirit of sport's’ legitimacy as the foundation for anti-doping policy.

Use and rationale for taking nutritional supplements among collegiate athletes at risk for nutrient deficiencies

Abstract: This study examined aspects of collegiate athletes’ eating habits, weight, and their use and perception of nutritional supplements. The purpose of this study was to determine if athletes at risk for nutrient deficiencies use nutritional supplements, and if their concerns about positive drug tests discouraged their use of nutritional supplements. This study examined 134 athletes from collegiate universities across the United States. They answered a questionnaire, developed by the researchers through Psychdata. From the athletes’ responses to questions about their eating habits, the study categorized participants into two groups: athletes at risk for nutrient deficiencies and athletes not at risk for nutrient deficiencies. In this study, 49 athletes were considered at risk for nutrient deficiencies. More at-risk athletes (53%) took nutritional supplements than those not at risk (33%). Among those at risk, more athletes (69%) took supplements who were not concerned about nutritional supplements causing a positive drug test, than those athletes who were concerned (38%). Athletes need education about reliable sources of information about supplements, dosing of supplements, and safety of supplements. Athletes also need to be informed of the potential consequences of taking unsafe supplements.

The doping mindset – Part II: Potentials and pitfalls in capturing athletes’ doping attitudes with response-time methodology

Abstract: The aim of this narrative review is to provide an overview of the progress made in applying response time methodology to assess implicit doping attitudes. The eight published studies reviewed in this paper evidenced the presence of implicit doping-related social cognition but without convincing discriminatory or predictive power. The response-time based measures using affective valence generally showed negative ‘implicit attitudes’ toward doping regardless of involvement; and none were able to predict self-reported doping behaviour over and above explicit attitude measures. Results suggest that this shortcoming could be explained by cognitive (in)consistency, marginally relevant affective frames and lack of conceptual clarity about what response time measures represent. Evidence emerged that relying on self-reports as behavioural outcome measures can yield misleading conclusions about the predictor variable. Research-design-imposed framing effect of the socially but not ecologically relevant heuristics on the implicit tests can produce non-interpretable outcomes. To facilitate future research into doping-related implicit social cognition, it is proposed that implicit doping attitude is best conceptualised as a collection of evaluations of the self-relevant thoughts about doping behaviour that are contextually retrieved from mental representations in meta-cognitively validated forms. Future research should adopt conceptual clarity of what performance on implicit tasks actually measure, focus on the cognitive processes and context that produce these measures and separate attitude from environmentally influenced associations. Researchers should move away from the prevailing but limiting affective/moralistic view of doping and incorporate alternative frames and methods to implicit social cognitive measures.

Does one play with the athletes' health in the name of ethics?

Abstract: The anti-doping policy is based on three institutional pillars of varying importance and officially relies on two major motives: the defense of sports ethics and the protection of athletes’ health. However, behind these official grounds, other considerations – i.e. moral, political and financial concerns – appear to shape anti-doping policy. Furthermore, the current trend of anti-doping efforts is to develop activities that tackle the supply-side of the doping market. In this article, we consider the possible impact of the emphasis on supply-side anti-doping on sport. The project focuses on Belgian and French elite cycling and relies on a multi-method instrumentation set, including the realisation of 77 semi-structured interviews among policy-makers, cyclists and their medical and technical staff as well as the administration of an online survey among competitive cyclists.

How to produce the belief in clean sports which sells

Abstract: Organisers of sport competitions sell a product, consisting of athletes’ performance and integrity of competition. These components are consumed simultaneously. Consumer demand for elite sport is at its highest when athletes perform at a high level and when consumers can believe in the athletes’ compliance with the rules. Anti-doping tests are needed because doping cannot be observed directly by consumers but only through the results of doping tests. However, if tests catch too many guilty deviators, consumer belief in the athletes’ compliance diminishes. Organisers of sporting events must decide on the intensity of testing in order to stabilise consumer demand. Intensive testing has the potential to deter athletes from using illicit substances or methods, thus leading to a low rate of detected athletes. A low rate of tests will deter fewer athletes from doping, but will also lead to a low number of detected athletes. Both strategies support consumer belief in compliance with the rules but have differing impact on athletes’ performance. Using a formal model and conducting a numerical simulation, we show that the present rate of about 2% adverse analytical findings is optimal for maximising the economic value of the competition for consumers, organisers, and athletes. Additionally, we show that the maximum utility of a low test rate can be changed if some specific but implausible criteria are met.

Psychosocial predictors of nutritional supplement use among leisure time exercisers

Abstract: The use of performance enhancement substances, such as nutritional supplements, is a growing phenomenon that pervades both competitive and non-competitive sports. The aim of the present study was to assess the interplay between social physique anxiety, nutritional supplement use and related social cognitions in leisure-time exercisers. The sample consisted of 196 gym users who completed a structured questionnaire including measures of social physique anxiety, supplement use and related social cognition variables. The results showed that about half of the respondents had used nutritional supplements at least once in the preceding year. Linear regression analysis indicated that social physique anxiety, past supplement use, attitudes, and personal norms predicted intentions to use dietary supplements. Multiple mediation modeling showed that the effect of social physique anxiety on supplement use intentions was fully mediated by past use. The present study provides novel findings about the effect of social physique anxiety and social cognitive processes on nutritional supplement use among leisure time exercisers.

Discourses of performance enhancement: can we separate performance enhancement from performance enhancing drug use?

Abstract: The following paper sets out to analyse how the term ‘performance enhancement’ comes to be understood and utilised as a concept within discussions surrounding anti-doping in sport. At the most explicit level – that of discussing how we come to regulate drug use in sport – it is argued that performance enhancement is framed either as part of sport, the antithesis of sport, or an issue of health management. By contrast, it is suggested that it should not be assumed that performance enhancing drugs are necessarily efficacious. At a deeper analytical level it is argued that our regulatory understandings of performance enhancement are shaped by underlying tensions with respect to the significance of health and technology as elements of sport. By way of discussion and conclusion, it is argued that current social thinking on the issue of performance enhancement is contradictory with respect to values and practices. It is suggested that this contradiction stems from the overwhelming focus on performance enhancement as a form of drug abuse.

What do we really know about doping ‘effects’? An argument for doping effects as co-constituted ‘phenomena’

Abstract: This paper focusses on the mutual concern of alcohol and other drug (AOD) and doping researchers with what might be broadly termed drug ‘effects’. I argue that the main approaches to drug ‘effects’ (realism and social constructionism) have several important limitations, including the idea that reality is determined by either matter or discourse. In this way, both approaches are problematic insofar as they often fail to take account of the other, or do so in a way that can be incoherent or internally contradictory. In recent years the most radical intervention in these debates has come via the work of feminist science studies scholar Karen Barad. Combining insights from quantum physics and feminist theory, Barad has developed a new theoretical framework for understanding cause and effect. In this paper, I provide a broad introduction to and overview of Barad's work. I introduce Barad's concepts of ‘intra-activity’ and the ‘phenomenon’ and outline how these have been mobilised in recent AOD scholarship. I argue that Barad's theoretical framework has opened up new and important questions for AOD researchers, and that her theoretical approach has the potential to similarly inspire more critical work on doping and more nuanced analyses of doping policy that are no longer predicated on the assumption that drugs always do what we are told they do. I conclude with some observations regarding ways that Barad's theoretical framework might be deployed in future research into drugs and sport.

Development and validation of the Exercise Dependence and Elite Athletes Scale

Abstract: Aims Exercise Dependence (EXD) is a clinical condition associated with physical and psychological risks for elite athletes. This paper describes the development and preliminary validation of the Exercise Dependence (EXD) and Elite Athletes Scale (EDEAS). Method Study 1 generated 27 preliminary items for the EDEAS based on the perceptions of coaches of elite athletes (n = 86). In Study 2, the initial EDEAS was administered to 234 elite athletes and the responses were factor analyzed. Results Six factors emerged: Unhealthy Eating Behavior, Conflict and Dissatisfaction, More Training, Withdrawal, Emotional Difficulties, Continuance Behavior. Item-total correlations for individual subscales and internal reliabilities were acceptable (i.e., α > .60). The final 24-item EDEAS was validated against an alternative measure of EXD, and was shown to be highly correlated. Conclusion The EDEAS shows acceptable preliminary psychometric properties as a measure of EXD among elite athletes.

What do the humanities (really) know about doping? Questions, answers and cross-disciplinary strategies

Abstract: Recent years have brought debates about the future role of humanities research in light of sciences’ progress. In doping research, tacit biases in favour of science risk ignoring the humanities in their efforts to understand and address the doping phenomenon. This article is a continuation of the discussion on the role of the humanities and social sciences in research on drug use in sport. The article asserts that until those who wish to address the doping issues in sport begin engaging humanities and social science research alongside the natural sciences, the results from scientific experiments will remain detached from the lived experiences of the athletes, and the anti-doping campaign risks losing its legitimacy. Conversely, we will also argue against two types of drawbacks for humanistic research; one is the dismissal of the pursuit of truth in exchange of epistemological relativism. The other is the tendency to turn inward and become reluctant to use empirical tools that provide purchase on the doping issue. The article will conclude by sketching a positive account of the two fields collaborating with more porous borders but one that asks neither side to compromise its professional standards or modes of inquiry. This new account asserts that future doping research requires cross-disciplinary and collaborative research rooted in strong methodologies but conversant in both languages.

'Playing like a girl': practices and performance ideals at the piano

Abstract: Studies of classical music have typically neglected the physical production of musical sound, in line with an ideal that a musician's performance appears effortless. However, the costs of elite classical musician performance are increasingly becoming evident, as studies capture the very high incidence of injury and doping. This paper takes a preliminary step towards critically analysing elite classical musician performance enhancement measures and health implications by examining the contexts of music performance. Taking the case of pianists, I address the question of ‘enhancement to what end?’ arguing that what counts as optimum performance, and the methods by which it is achieved, is situated historically and socioculturally, and can be specific to factors such as gender. I suggest that studies of elite classical musician performance enhancement and health need to take account of this context, and contribute to this research approach through an examination of the cases of the ‘accomplished’ pianist, the classical pianist, and the female classical pianist.

Tacit premises and assumptions in anti-doping research

Abstract: The development of the Anti-Doping Test Regime over the last few decades has been described as a process of increasing restrictions to athletes’ civil rights. This process is based on two strongly interconnected basic assumptions; that Anti-Doping Organizations (ADOs) really aim to effectively reduce doping and that testing and sanctioning are by principle appropriate to attain this goal. Scrutiny of the first assumptions shows that it is at least implausible. Scrutiny shows the second assumption is definitely wrong. Nevertheless, ADOs have succeeded in attracting increasing levels of resources and restrictions on athletes’ civil rights. A possible, but nevertheless implausible strategy to deal with this problem is sketched out.

Screening for recreational drugs in sports. Balance between fair competition and private life

Abstract: The term “recreational drug” typically includes substances such s marijuana, cocaine, and other compounds that are mainly taken or pleasure and not for enhancing athletic performance. Despite onsumption of these drugs being currently banned in sports by the orld Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) and several other national and upranational anti-doping organisations (Lippi et al., 2012), recent vidence suggests that their use may be widespread in elite and op-class athletes such as soccer or football (Petroczi & Naughton, 009; Waddington, Malcolm, Roderick, & Naik, 2005). The leading issue around the use of recreational drugs in sports s their questionable influence on athletic performance. According o one perspective, clearly presented by Waddington, Christiansen, leaves, Hoberman, and Moller (2013), a substance taken outside ompetition to enhance social rather than sports performances is n aspect of private life that should not involve – nor be pursued by anti-doping agencies, including WADA. According to another oint of view of Henne, Koh, and McDermott (2013), this rather ragmatic approach carries some ethical and biological drawbacks. ndeed, the use of recreational drugs such as opiates (e.g., opium, orphine, codeine, heroin, methadone, pethidine and fentanyl), entral nervous system (CNS) depressants (e.g., barbiturates and enzodiazepines), CNS stimulants (e.g., caffeine and cocaine) and annabis collides with the immaculate spirit of sport. Champions re often seen as a paragon in both official competition and in their

Expansion beyond reason: WADA surveillance and sanction should not concern itself with non-sporting social issues and public health

Abstract: The question of whether WADA should remove acknowledged non-performance enhancing drugs that are also controlled drugs in the non-sporting world, such as cannabis, from its banned substances list, and thus from its remit is an important one. It is important because it helps define the parameters of what organisations such as WADA ought to be concerned with and it is important because it provides an illustration of how concerns around drug use and doping are often far more than a simple concern for the health of individuals but are also in fact complexly wrapped up in issues of morality and the governance of populations. The two papers that contest the question are in fact not too far apart in reality. Both provide an excellent case for why WADA's current justification and rationale for the inclusion of drugs such as cannabis, cocaine and ecstasy in its banned list does not hold up to scrutiny, is contradictory and based on weak argumentation – particularly when invoking WADAs criterion of violation of the ‘spirit of sport’. Where the papers differ is in their respective positioning on how WADA should resolve what is in reality a serious and indefensible dilemma. Waddington, Christiansen, Gleaves, Hoberman, and Moller (2013) argue that WADA has no jurisdiction over the private and personal activities of sports people, should refrain from attempting to do so in this regard and should remove the substances in question from their remit whereas Henne, Koh, and McDermott (2013) argue that a more refined understanding and articulation of the health concerns relating to these substances both justifies WADA inclusion and would substantiate their inclusion on the grounds of health risk alone. For Henne et al. (arguably in contradiction to the tenor of the rest of their paper) it is about tightening up the logic and justification to fit the existing policy whilst for Waddington et al. it is about showing how both the policy and its rationale are misplaced and should be abandoned.