scispace - formally typeset
Search or ask a question

Showing papers in "Periodontology 2000 in 2016"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Salivary films are essential for maintaining oral health and regulating the oral microbiome, and understanding the mechanisms by which components enter saliva is an important aspect of validating their use as biomarkers of health and disease.
Abstract: Saliva in the mouth is a biofluid produced mainly by three pairs of major salivary glands--the submandibular, parotid and sublingual glands--along with secretions from many minor submucosal salivary glands. Salivary gland secretion is a nerve-mediated reflex and the volume of saliva secreted is dependent on the intensity and type of taste and on chemosensory, masticatory or tactile stimulation. Long periods of low (resting or unstimulated) flow are broken by short periods of high flow, which is stimulated by taste and mastication. The nerve-mediated salivary reflex is modulated by nerve signals from other centers in the central nervous system, which is most obvious as hyposalivation at times of anxiety. An example of other neurohormonal influences on the salivary reflex is the circadian rhythm, which affects salivary flow and ionic composition. Cholinergic parasympathetic and adrenergic sympathetic autonomic nerves evoke salivary secretion, signaling through muscarinic M3 and adrenoceptors on salivary acinar cells and leading to secretion of fluid and salivary proteins. Saliva gland acinar cells are chloride and sodium secreting, and the isotonic fluid produced is rendered hypotonic by salivary gland duct cells as it flows to the mouth. The major proteins present in saliva are secreted by salivary glands, creating viscoelasticity and enabling the coating of oral surfaces with saliva. Salivary films are essential for maintaining oral health and regulating the oral microbiome. Saliva in the mouth contains a range of validated and potential disease biomarkers derived from epithelial cells, neutrophils, the microbiome, gingival crevicular fluid and serum. For example, cortisol levels are used in the assessment of stress, matrix metalloproteinases-8 and -9 appear to be promising markers of caries and periodontal disease, and a panel of mRNA and proteins has been proposed as a marker of oral squamous cell carcinoma. Understanding the mechanisms by which components enter saliva is an important aspect of validating their use as biomarkers of health and disease.

293 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Omic analyses of gingival crevicular fluid, measuring microbial and host interactions in association with the onset and progression of periodontal diseases, still show the potential to expand the landscape for the discovery of diagnostic, prognostic and therapeutic markers.
Abstract: In evaluating the pathogenesis of periodontal diseases, the diagnostic potential of gingival crevicular fluid has been extensively explored during the last twenty years, from initially just confirming health and disease states to more recently investigating it as a potential prognostic tool. As host susceptibility is a critical determinant in periodontal disease pathogenesis, the inflammatory mediator levels present in gingival crevicular fluid represent relevant risk indicators for disease activity. Considerable work has been carried out to identify the many different cytokine inflammatory pathways and microbial stimuli that are associated with periodontal disease pathogenesis. Now, 'omics' approaches aim to summarize how these pathways interact and probably converge to create critical inflammatory networks. More recently, gingival crevicular fluid metabolomics appears promising as an additional diagnostic method. Biofilm structure and the host inflammatory response to the microbial challenge may induce specific inflammatory signatures. Host genetics and epigenetics may also modulate microbial colonization, adding to the multiplicity of potential causal pathways. Omics analyses of gingival crevicular fluid, measuring microbial and host interactions in association with the onset and progression of periodontal diseases, still show the potential to expand the landscape for the discovery of diagnostic, prognostic and therapeutic markers.

248 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The changing global demographic profile and the effects of an aging society on the prevalence and incidence of periodontal diseases are described.
Abstract: Epidemiologic studies show that 11% of the world's population is over 60 years of age; this is projected to increase, by 2050, to 22% of the population. Oral aging is a current focus of several organizations including the Federation Dentaire Internationale, the World Health Organization and the American and Japanese Dental Associations. In their Tokyo Declaration, the Japanese Association identified the elderly population as one of its main target groups. One of the WHO goals is for each person to retain more than 20 teeth by age 80, despite the fact that the prevalence of periodontal disease is continuously rising as the population is aging. Every species has its own characteristic lifespan, which is determined by its evolutionary history and is modified by multiple diverse factors, including biological mechanisms. In humans, the gradual accumulation of products of cellular metabolism and extensive DNA damage contribute to the aging process. Aging is thought to be associated with a low-grade inflammatory phenotype in mammals, called ‘inflammaging’, and is the result of autophagic capacity impairing so-called ‘housekeeping activities’ in the cells, resulting in protein aggregation, mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress. Delayed stem-cell proliferation, associated with aging, may impact the maintenance and survival of a living being, but excessive proliferation could also result in depleted reserves of stem cells. Studies are needed to address the association of delayed cell proliferation and wound healing with the onset of periodontal diseases and response to treatment. The effects of systemic diseases, medications, psychological effects and decreased interest or ability in performing oral-hygiene practices are thought to result in periodontal diseases, and ultimately in tooth loss, in aged individuals. Together with an aging population comes a responsibility for ‘healthy’ and ‘successful’ aging. This article describes the changing global demographic profile and the effects of an aging society on the prevalence and incidence of periodontal diseases. We review the definitions of normal and successful aging, the principles of geriatric medicine and the highlights of biological aging at cellular, tissue and systems levels.

237 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Matrix metalloproteinase-8 can be used alone or together with interleukin-1beta and Porphyromonas gingivalis to calculate cumulative risk score at the subject level as a successful diagnostic tool, especially in large-scale public health surveys, in which a thorough periodontal examination is not feasible.
Abstract: Matrix metalloproteinase-8 is a promising candidate biomarker for oral fluid (gingival crevicular fluid, peri-implant sulcular fluid and saliva) and mouthrinse chair-side/point-of-care diagnostics to predict, diagnose and determine the progressive phases of episodic periodontitis and peri-implantitis, as well as to monitor the treatments and medications. Matrix metalloproteinase-8 can be used alone or together with interleukin-1beta and Porphyromonas gingivalis to calculate cumulative risk score at the subject level as a successful diagnostic tool, especially in large-scale public health surveys, in which a thorough periodontal examination is not feasible.

219 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The slight additional benefits of adjunctive antimicrobials, which were shown for moderate forms of periodontitis, have to be balanced against their side effects and therefore their prescription should be limited as much as possible.
Abstract: This review gives an update of the current scientific evidence on the efficacy of the adjunctive use of systemic and local antibiotics/antimicrobials in the treatment of periodontitis. In particular, it addresses whether their use can improve the results of nonsurgical mechanical therapy in mild-to-moderate forms of the disease. Large numbers of randomized clinical trials and systematic reviews with meta-analyses have clearly established that adjunctive systemic antibiotics, combined with mechanical debridement, offer clinical improvements additional to those obtained with scaling and root planing alone. These effects are more pronounced in aggressive periodontitis and in initially deep pockets, whereas more limited additional improvements, of 0.3 mm for additional pocket reduction and 0.2 mm for additional clinical attachment gain, have been documented for moderately deep sites (4-6 mm) in patients with chronic periodontitis. The marginal clinical benefit in patients with moderate disease has to be balanced against possible side effects. Notably, it has to be realized that an increasing number of warnings have been articulated against the unrestricted use of antibiotics in treating periodontal diseases because of the emerging global public health issue of bacterial resistance. The effects of the adjunctive local administration of antimicrobials have also been very well documented in several systematic reviews. Overall, in persistent or recurrent localized deep sites, the application of antimicrobials by sustained-delivery devices may offer a benefit of an additional 0.4 mm in pocket depth reduction and 0.3 mm in clinical attachment level gain. In conclusion, the slight additional benefits of adjunctive antimicrobials, which were shown for moderate forms of periodontitis, have to be balanced against their side effects and therefore their prescription should be limited as much as possible.

207 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: There is moderate evidence that improved oral hygiene may help prevent aspiration pneumonia in high-risk patients, and no specific guidance can be provided regarding oral hygiene or periodontal interventions that enhance the medical management of older adults.
Abstract: Oral diseases, such as caries and periodontitis, not only have local effects on the dentition and on tooth-supporting tissues but also may impact a number of systemic conditions. Emerging evidence suggests that poor oral health influences the initiation and/or progression of diseases such as atherosclerosis (with sequelae including myocardial infarction and stoke), diabetes mellitus and neurodegenerative diseases (such as Alzheimer's disease, rheumatoid arthritis and others). Aspiration of oropharyngeal (including periodontal) bacteria causes pneumonia, especially in hospitalized patients and the elderly, and may influence the course of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. This article addresses several pertinent aspects related to the medical implications of periodontal disease in the elderly. There is moderate evidence that improved oral hygiene may help prevent aspiration pneumonia in high-risk patients. For other medical conditions, because of the absence of well-designed randomized clinical trials in elderly patients, no specific guidance can be provided regarding oral hygiene or periodontal interventions that enhance the medical management of older adults.

198 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Overall, periodontitis is highly prevalent in this subpopulation, with two-thirds of dentate older adults affected at any geographic level, and how the overall health-care management of older adults should consider the improvement of their oral health conditions is determined.
Abstract: The older adult population is growing rapidly in the USA and it is expected that by 2040 the number of adults ≥ 65 years of age will have increased by about 50%. With the growth of this subpopulation, oral health status, and periodontal status in particular, becomes important in the quest to maintain an adequate quality of life. Poor oral health can have a major impact, leading to tooth loss, pain and discomfort, and may prevent older adults from chewing food properly, often leading to poor nutrition. Periodontitis is monitored in the USA at the national level as part of the Healthy People 2020 initiative. In this report, we provide estimates of the overall burden of periodontitis among adults ≥ 65 years of age and after stratification according to sociodemographic factors, modifiable risk factors (such as smoking status), the presence of other systemic conditions (such as diabetes) and access to dental care. We also estimated the burden of periodontitis within this age group at the state and local levels. Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2009/2010 and 2011/2012 cycles were analyzed. Periodontal measures from both survey cycles were based on a full-mouth periodontal examination. Nineteen per cent of adults in this subpopulation were edentulous. The mean age was 73 years, 7% were current smokers, 8% lived below the 100% Federal Poverty Level and < 40% had seen a dentist in the past year. Almost two-thirds (62.3%) had one or more sites with ≥ 5 mm of clinical attachment loss and almost half had at least one site with probing pocket depth of ≥ 4 mm. We estimated the lowest prevalence of periodontitis in Utah (62.3%) and New Hampshire (62.6%) and the highest in New Mexico, Hawaii, and the District of Columbia each with a prevalence of higher than 70%. Overall, periodontitis is highly prevalent in this subpopulation, with two-thirds of dentate older adults affected at any geographic level. These findings provide an opportunity to determine how the overall health-care management of older adults should consider the improvement of their oral health conditions. Many older adults do not have dental insurance and are also likely to have some chronic conditions, which can adversely affect their oral health.

193 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Saliva plays a major role in determining the composition and activity of the oral microbiota, via a variety of mechanisms, and components of the adaptive and innate host defences are delivered by saliva, and these often function synergistically, and at sublethal concentrations, so a complex relationship develops between the host and the resident microbiota.
Abstract: Saliva plays a major role in determining the composition and activity of the oral microbiota, via a variety of mechanisms. Molecules, mainly from saliva, form a conditioning film on oral surfaces, thus providing receptors for bacterial attachment. The attached cells use saliva components, such as glycoproteins, as their main source of nutrients for growth. Oral bacteria work sequentially and in a concerted manner to catabolize these structurally complex molecules. Saliva also buffers the pH in the biofilm to around neutrality, creating an environment which is conducive to the growth of many oral bacteria that provide important benefits to the host. Components of the adaptive and innate host defences are delivered by saliva, and these often function synergistically, and at sublethal concentrations, so a complex relationship develops between the host and the resident microbiota. Dysbiosis can occur rapidly if the flow of saliva is perturbed.

191 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The phenomenon of immunosenescence and inflammaging, expressed as age-associated changes within the periodontium, needs to be more fully understood in this era of precision and personalized medicine and dentistry.
Abstract: The increased prevalence and severity of periodontal disease have long been associated with aging, such that this oral condition affects the majority of the adult population over 50 years of age. Although the immune system is a critical component for maintaining health, aging can be characterized by quantitative and qualitative modifications of the immune system. This process, termed 'immunosenescence', is a progressive modification of the immune system that leads to greater susceptibility to infections, neoplasia and autoimmunity, presumably reflecting the prolonged antigenic stimulation and/or stress responses that occur across the lifespan. Interestingly, the global reduction in the host capability to respond effectively to these challenges is coupled with a progressive increase in the general proinflammatory status, termed 'inflammaging'. Consistent with the definition of immunosenescence, it has been suggested that the cumulative effect of prolonged exposure of the periodontium to microbial challenge is, at least in part, a contributor to the effects of aging on these tissues. Thus, it has also been hypothesized that alterations in the function of resident immune and nonimmune cells of the periodontium contribute to the expression of inflammaging in periodontal disease. Although the majority of aging research has focused on the adaptive immune response, it is becoming increasingly clear that the innate immune compartment is also highly affected by aging. Thus, the phenomenon of immunosenescence and inflammaging, expressed as age-associated changes within the periodontium, needs to be more fully understood in this era of precision and personalized medicine and dentistry.

136 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A reduced, but functional, dentition of 20 teeth in occlusion has been proposed as a measure of successful oral aging, which is important to healthy aging from both biological and social perspectives.
Abstract: Aging is the physiologic change that occurs over time. In humans, this change occurs at different rates and are related to lifestyle, environment and genetics. It can be challenging to differentiate normal aging from disease. In the oral cavity, with increasing age the teeth demonstrate wearing of the enamel, chipping and fracture lines, and a darker color. The pulp chamber and canals are reduced in size as a result of the deposition of secondary dentin. Coronal or root caries, however, represent disease. A limited amount of periodontal attachment loss occurs in association with aging, usually manifesting as recession on the buccal surface of teeth. Severe periodontitis occurs in 10.5-12% of the population, with the peak incidence being observed at 35-40 years of age. Changes to the mucosal tissue that occur with age include reduced wound-healing capacity. However, environmental factors, such as smoking, dramatically increase the risk of mucosal pathology. Reduced salivary gland function is often seen in association with medication usage, as well as with disorders such as diabetes mellitus. Both medication use and chronic disorders are more common in older adults. Masticatory function is of particular importance for older adults. Maintenance of a nutritionally complete diet is important for avoiding sarcopenia and the frailty syndrome. Successful oral aging is associated with adequate function and comfort. A reduced, but functional, dentition of 20 teeth in occlusion has been proposed as a measure of successful oral aging. Healthy oral aging is important to healthy aging from both biological and social perspectives.

121 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a review of laser therapy for periodontitis and peri-implant disease is presented, where a large number of published clinical studies and case reports have evaluated the adjunctive use of diode, carbon dioxide, neodymium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet (Nd:YAG), erbium, chromium, scandium, gallium, garnet, or antimicrobial photodynamic therapy for nonsurgical and minimally invasive surgical treatment of periodontal pockets.
Abstract: Laser therapy has the potential to be an effective, minimally invasive procedure in periodontal therapy. The aim of the present review was to survey the relevant literature on the clinical application of lasers as a minimally invasive treatment for periodontitis and peri-implant disease. Currently, there are a large number of published clinical studies and case reports that evaluate the adjunctive use of diode, carbon dioxide, neodymium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet (Nd:YAG), erbium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet (Er:YAG) and erbium, chromium-doped: yttrium, scandium, gallium, garnet (Er,Cr:YSGG) lasers or antimicrobial photodynamic therapy for nonsurgical and minimally invasive surgical treatment of periodontal pockets. These procedures are expected not only to control inflammation but also to provide biostimulation effects with photonic energy. Recent meta-analyses did not show statistically significant differences in pocket reduction and clinical attachment gain compared with mechanical debridement alone, although limited positive effects of adjunctive laser therapy were reported. At present, systematic literature approaches suggest that more evidence-based studies need to be performed to support the integration of various laser therapies into the treatment of periodontal and peri-implant diseases. The disparity between previous statistical analyses and individual successful clinical outcomes of laser applications might reveal the necessity of developing optimal laser-treatment modalities of different wavelengths and better-defined indications for each protocol.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: An overview of the composition of the subgingival biofilm in older adults and the potential effects of age on the oral microbiome is provided and the relationship of the aging oral microbiota and Alzheimer's disease is examined.
Abstract: Different mechanisms have been hypothesized to explain the increase in prevalence and severity of periodontitis in older adults, including shifts in the periodontal microbiota. However, the actual impact of aging on the composition of subgingival biofilms remains unclear. In the present article, we provide an overview of the composition of the subgingival biofilm in older adults and the potential effects of age on the oral microbiome. In particular, this review covers the following topics: (i) the oral microbiota of an aging mouth; (ii) the effects of age and time on the human oral microbiome; (iii) the potential impact of inflammaging and immunosenescence in the host-oral microbiota interactions; and (iv) the relationship of the aging oral microbiota and Alzheimer's disease. Finally, we present analyses of data compiled from large clinical studies that evaluated the subgingival microbiota of periodontally healthy subjects and patients with periodontitis from a wide age spectrum (20-83 years of age).

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The main body of the literature supports an elevated caries prevalence and/or incidence among people with a pathologically low saliva flow rate, compromised buffering capacity and early colonization or high titer of mutans streptococci in saliva.
Abstract: As a highly prevalent multifactorial disease, dental caries afflicts a large proportion of the world's population. As teeth are constantly bathed in saliva, the constituents and properties of this oral fluid play an essential role in the occurrence and progression of dental caries. Various inorganic (water and electrolytes) and organic (proteins and peptides) components may protect teeth from dental caries. This occurs via several functions, such as clearance of food debris and sugar, aggregation and elimination of microorganisms, buffering actions to neutralize acid, maintaining supersaturation with respect to tooth mineral, participation in formation of the acquired pellicle and antimicrobial defense. Modest evidence is available on the associations between dental caries and several salivary parameters, including flow rate, buffering capacity and abundance of mutans streptococci. Despite some controversial findings, the main body of the literature supports an elevated caries prevalence and/or incidence among people with a pathologically low saliva flow rate, compromised buffering capacity and early colonization or high titer of mutans streptococci in saliva. The evidence remains weak and/or inconsistent on the association between dental caries and other saliva parameters, such as other possible cariogenic species (Lactobacillus spp., Streptococcus sanguis group, Streptococcus salivarius, Actinomyces spp. and Candida albicans), diversity of saliva microbiomes, inorganic and organic constituents (electrolytes, immunoglobulins, other proteins and peptides) and some functional properties (sugar clearance rate, etc.). The complex interactions between salivary components and functions suggest that saliva has to be considered in its entirety to account for its total effects on teeth.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The aim of this paper was to give a comprehensive overview of salivary cytokines in periodontitis, highlighting extensively studied cytokines such as interleukin-1beta and interleUKin-6, but also cytokines that have been the subject of only a few studies and which warrant further investigation.
Abstract: Research into biomarkers of periodontitis is driven by mainly three targets: to identify 'at risk' patients before periodontal tissue destruction occurs; to determine disease activity and progression; and to build up our understanding of this complex disease with the purpose of finding new therapeutic targets. Whilst blood and gingival crevicular fluid were previously the biological samples of choice, saliva has recently gained more attention as a readily accessible oral fluid which has a mediator profile similar to that of serum and gingival crevicular fluid. The aim of this paper was to give a comprehensive overview of salivary cytokines in periodontitis, highlighting extensively studied cytokines such as interleukin-1beta and interleukin-6, but also cytokines that have been the subject of only a few studies and which warrant further investigation. Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies of salivary cytokines, and the potential of cytokines as periodontitis biomarkers, are evaluated. Finally, a discussion of potential confounding factors, such as concurrent systemic diseases and smoking, is presented.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper will focus on how common modifying factors, such as smoking, stress, hormonal changes, diabetes, metabolic syndrome and HIV/AIDS, influence each of these responses, together with treatment implications.
Abstract: Plaque-induced periodontal diseases occur in response to the accumulation of dental plaque. Disease manifestation and progression is determined by the nature of the immune response to the bacterial complexes in plaque. In general, predisposing factors for these periodontal diseases can be defined as those factors which retain or hinder the removal of plaque and, depending upon the nature of the immune response to this plaque, the disease will either remain stable and not progress or it may progress and result in chronic periodontitis. In contrast, modifying factors can be defined as those factors that alter the nature or course of the inflammatory lesion. These factors do not cause the disease but rather modify the chronic inflammatory response, which, in turn, is determined by the nature of the innate and adaptive immune responses and the local cytokine and inflammatory mediator networks. Chronic inflammation is characterized by vascular, cellular and repair responses within the tissues. This paper will focus on how common modifying factors, such as smoking, stress, hormonal changes, diabetes, metabolic syndrome and HIV/AIDS, influence each of these responses, together with treatment implications. As treatment planning in periodontics requires an understanding of the etiology and pathogenesis of the disease, it is important for all modifying factors to be taken into account. For some of these, such as smoking, stress and diabetic control, supportive health behavior advice within the dental setting should be an integral component for overall patient management.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The intent was to determine whether the benefits of surgical procedures in the hands of most general dentists extend beyond those of conventional nonsurgical therapy.
Abstract: A renewed interest in conservative surgical techniques has been fueled by new technology, changes in referral patterns to periodontists and a desire to achieve periodontal health in the least invasive, most cost-efficient manner possible. Trends suggest that an increasing amount of periodontal care is being provided in the offices of general dentists. If true, it is likely that patients receiving care in these offices will be offered simpler surgical treatment modalities that do not require an extensive armamentarium. The purpose of this article was to review the effectiveness of six relatively simple surgical techniques - gingivectomy, flap debridement, modified Widman flap, excisional new attachment procedure, modified excisional new attachment procedure and laser-assisted new attachment procedure - and to compare the results obtained using these procedures with the well-known clinical benefits of scaling and root planing. The intent was to determine whether the benefits of surgical procedures in the hands of most general dentists extend beyond those of conventional nonsurgical therapy.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article provides an up-to-date review of the more robust salivary biomarkers, as well as of panels of combinatorial markers andperiodontal pathogens, that reveal high sensitivity and specificity for enhancing clinical decision-making in periodontal disease progression, risk and diagnosis.
Abstract: This article provides an up-to-date review of the more robust salivary biomarkers, as well as of panels of combinatorial markers and periodontal pathogens, that reveal high sensitivity and specificity for enhancing clinical decision-making in periodontal disease progression, risk and diagnosis. Periodontal diseases are complex and require an inflammatory response to bacterial pathogens in a susceptible host to stimulate tissue destruction. When used alone, traditional clinical assessments provide a diagnosis of periodontitis only after the biologic onset of the disease process, and are unable to substantiate disease activity or future risk. New technologies are becoming available that are capable of measuring combinations of inflammatory cytokines and proteinases for rapid chair-side testing. Utilizing saliva to identify and measure specific phenotypes and host-derived mediators will allow highly individualized diagnosis, prognosis and treatments for periodontal diseases. This personalized medicine approach will strengthen the power of the clinical oral examination and medical history assessments, providing patients with evidence-based, targeted risk care.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The mechanisms of how diseases distal from the oral cavity can lead to the appearance of discriminatory biomarkers in saliva are illustrated, and the relevance of these markers for translational and clinical applications are discussed.
Abstract: Saliva contains a variety of biomolecules, including DNA, coding and noncoding RNA, proteins, metabolites and microbiota. The changes in the salivary levels of these molecular constituents can be used to develop markers for disease detection and risk assessment. Use of saliva as an early-detection tool is a promising approach because collection of saliva is easy and noninvasive. Here, we review recent developments in salivary diagnostics, accomplished using salivaomics approaches, including genomic, transcriptomic, proteomic, metabolomic and microbiomic technologies. Additionally, we illustrate the mechanisms of how diseases distal from the oral cavity can lead to the appearance of discriminatory biomarkers in saliva, and discuss the relevance of these markers for translational and clinical applications.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This work surveys viral infections in general and then focuses on those viruses that are found in and/or are transmitted via the oral cavity; norovirus, rabies, human papillomavirus, Epstein‐Barr virus, herpes simplex viruses, hepatitis C virus, and HIV.
Abstract: Over the last 10 years there have been only a handful of publications dealing with the oral virome, which is in contrast to the oral microbiome, an area that has seen considerable interest. Here, we survey viral infections in general and then focus on those viruses that are found in and/or are transmitted via the oral cavity; norovirus, rabies, human papillomavirus, Epstein-Barr virus, herpes simplex viruses, hepatitis C virus, and HIV. Increasingly, viral infections have been diagnosed using an oral sample (e.g. saliva mucosal transudate or an oral swab) instead of blood or urine. The results of two studies using a rapid and semi-quantitative lateral flow assay format demonstrating the correlation of HIV anti-IgG/sIgA detection with saliva and serum samples are presented. When immediate detection of infection is important, point-of-care devices that obtain a non-invasive sample from the oral cavity can be used to provide a first line diagnosis to assist in determining appropriate counselling and therapeutic path for an increasing number of diseases.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: There is no consensus on the optimal interventions for the treatment of peri-implant mucositis, however, all effective supportive implant therapy programs emphasize meticulous oral hygiene practices, careful peri -implant examination, thoughtful analysis of risk factors and periodic removal of microbial deposits from the implants.
Abstract: Long-term successful treatment of chronic periodontitis requires placement of patients on post-treatment recall programs known as either periodontal maintenance therapy or supportive periodontal therapy. Selection of the recall intervals must be based on the specific needs of individual patients. A single recall interval (e.g. 6 months) is not suitable for all patients. The main purpose of these programs is to prevent the recurrence of periodontitis. The components of every periodontal maintenance therapy program include: review of medical/dental histories; complete oral examination with an emphasis on the detection of gingival inflammation; establishing whether the maintenance program is working by monitoring clinical attachment levels; evaluation of oral hygiene; and full-mouth supragingival and subgingival debridement (i.e. biofilm removal). Long-term post-insertion care for dental implants also requires a similar patient-specific recall program of supportive implant therapy. The main purposes of a supportive implant therapy program are to maintain a healthy peri-implant mucosa and thereby prevent the development of peri-implantitis. In cases in which plaque-induced peri-implant mucositis has occurred, a well-designed supportive implant therapy program can help return the mucosa to a healthy state. At the current time there is no consensus on the optimal interventions for the treatment of peri-implant mucositis. However, all effective supportive implant therapy programs emphasize meticulous oral hygiene practices, careful peri-implant examination, thoughtful analysis of risk factors and periodic removal of microbial deposits from the implants.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Pro and con arguments regarding the mechanisms of halitosis and clinical implications will be presented, and the impact of tongue coatings has been found to be the dominant factor, besides gingivitis and periodontitis.
Abstract: Bad breath (halitosis) is an important social complaint. In most cases (≥90%), the cause of halitosis can be found within the oral cavity. Under this circumstance, the term oral malodor applies. It affects both healthy and periodontally diseased individuals. Oral malodor is mainly caused by a microbial degradation of both sulfur-containing and nonsulfur-containing amino acids into volatile, bad-smelling gases. Anaerobic gram-negative bacteria, the same species that have been linked to periodontal diseases, are especially involved in this process, explaining why clinicians often associate oral malodor with periodontitis. Some volatile organic compounds render patients more susceptible to periodontitis and this supports the malodor-periodontitis link. This review investigates the interaction between oral malodor and periodontal diseases. Pro and con arguments regarding the mechanisms of halitosis and clinical implications will be presented. In general, however, the impact of tongue coatings has been found to be the dominant factor, besides gingivitis and periodontitis. The last part of this review discusses the treatment of bad breath, with different options.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Chairside tools that can help in the selection of interventions designed to reduce the risk of future gingival recession are introduced and may also facilitate patient communication.
Abstract: Gingival recession is highly prevalent worldwide. It increases the risk for root caries and can interfere with patient comfort, function and esthetics. Progressive gingival recession also increases the risk of tooth loss secondary to clinical attachment loss. Although mitigating the causes of gingival recession decreases its incidence and severity, implementing practical management and prevention strategies in the clinical setting can be challenging. Identification of susceptible patients and evaluating them for the presence of modifiable risk exposures are essential first steps in developing action plans for appropriate interventions. This article reviews these steps and introduces chairside tools that can help in the selection of interventions designed to reduce the risk of future gingival recession and may also facilitate patient communication. Practical decision-making criteria are proposed for when and how to monitor gingival recession, for deciding when a patient is a candidate for surgical evaluation or referral to a periodontist, and, if surgery is the treatment of choice, what should be considered as key surgical outcome objectives.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The precise methods used for collection and analysis of gingival crevicular fluid should be reported in detail, either in the methods section of published papers or as an online supplementary file so that other researchers may reproduce the methodology.
Abstract: Despite the technical challenges involved when collecting, processing and analyzing gingival crevicular fluid samples, research using gingival crevicular fluid has, and will continue to play, a fundamental role in expanding our understanding of periodontal pathogenesis and healing outcomes following treatment. A review of the literature, however, clearly demonstrates that there is considerable variation in the methods used for collection, processing and analysis of gingival crevicular fluid samples by different research groups around the world. Inconsistent or inadequate reporting impairs interpretation of results, prevents accurate comparison of data between studies and potentially limits the conclusions that can be made from a larger body of evidence. The precise methods used for collection and analysis of gingival crevicular fluid (including calibration studies required before definitive clinical studies) should be reported in detail, either in the methods section of published papers or as an online supplementary file, so that other researchers may reproduce the methodology. Only with clear and transparent reporting will the full impact of future gingival crevicular fluid research be realized. This paper discusses the complexities of gingival crevicular fluid collection and analysis and provides guidance to researchers working in this field.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This volume of Periodontology 2000 considers the role of gingival crevicular fluid and saliva in physiological function, maintenance of oral tissue integrity, defense against pathogens and oral disease as well as the many, emerging applications of analysis of these fluids in support of periodontal disease diagnosis, prognosis and epidemiology.
Abstract: Understanding the structure and function of the mouth, its tissues and secretions is of great interest to physiologists, cell biologists, immunologists and microbiologists but is also of fundamental interest to the dental professional interested in comprehending the aberrant processes associated with oral disease and in the application of effective clinical interventions. The field of periodontology, which has a truly multidisciplinary perspective cutting across leading edge molecular and cellular biology, clinical dentistry, epidemiology and behavioural science, exemplifies this. A paradigm shift in recent years has led to the consideration of the oral cavity (and, thus, oral disease) not in isolation but as a component integrated with systemic physiology, important in maintaining systemic health and reflective of systemic disease; this has served to promote periodontology, in particular, into the forefront of medicine in general. This volume of Periodontology 2000 considers the role of gingival crevicular fluid and saliva in physiological function, maintenance of oral tissue integrity, defense against pathogens and oral disease as well as the many, emerging applications of analysis of these fluids in support of periodontal disease diagnosis, prognosis and epidemiology. However, whilst the emphasis is on periodontal disease, the wider contexts of oral and systemic health are also key considerations.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The hypothesis that factors associated with oral disease and noncommunicable diseases may increase the risk of tooth loss and lead to diminished longevity as a result of multifactorial interactions is explored.
Abstract: Many factors contribute to human tooth loss, including oral hygiene practices, trauma, smoking, health status, socio-economic status and individual preferences. Loss of teeth impairs quality-of-life measures, including the eating of most foods that require full masticatory function. A recent study of centenarians found that at age 65–74 years, those who lived to be 100 had a lower rate of edentulism than did younger members of their birth cohort at ages 65–74 years. Oral health was consistent with compression of morbidity toward the end of life. This article explores the hypothesis that factors associated with oral disease and noncommunicable diseases may increase the risk of tooth loss and lead to diminished longevity as a result of multifactorial interactions. It specifically addresses two critical questions. The first is: ‘Can we conclude that the number of teeth in aging humans can affect longevity and life expectancy?’ The answer is yes. The second is: ‘Is tooth loss a predictor of shortened longevity?’ Again, the answer is yes. Edentulism and partial edentulism are discussed as a disability, and how the philosophy/belief systems of dental providers and patients toward retaining teeth influences the outcome of tooth loss is also examined. Osteoporosis and cognitive impairment provide examples of modifying risk factors.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The use of ultrasonic and hand instrumentation, along with recent advances, and the benefits of adjunctive therapy during nonsurgical periodontal therapy are discussed.
Abstract: Periodontal disease is the most common oral disease in adults. Traditional nonsurgical periodontal therapy involves subgingival removal of hard and soft deposits on the root surface, along with maintenance of good oral hygiene. Nonsurgical periodontal therapy can either be definitive or part of the initial phase before surgical therapy. Mechanical therapy, either with hand or ultrasonic instrumentation, is the keystone of nonsurgical periodontal therapy. This requires considerable amounts of time and a high level of operator skill. The use of appropriate instruments greatly increases clinical efficiency. This article discusses the use of ultrasonic and hand instrumentation, along with recent advances, and the benefits of adjunctive therapy during nonsurgical periodontal therapy.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The main focus of this review is polymorphonuclear neutrophilic granulocytes, which play a pivotal role in normal host resistance to subgingival dental-plaque biofilm and hyper- and hypo-responsiveness of the immune system toward the microbial challenge in periodontitis.
Abstract: The main focus of this review is polymorphonuclear neutrophilic granulocytes. Polymorphonuclear neutrophils play a pivotal role in normal host resistance to subgingival dental-plaque biofilm. Both hyper- and hypo-responsiveness of the immune system toward the microbial challenge in periodontitis have been described. We review polymorphonuclear neutrophil physiology with emphasis on the role of neutrophil functions and dysfunctions in periodontitis. Text boxes are given at the end of each subsection, which present the current knowledge on neutrophil-modulating agents as a potential therapeutic approach in periodontitis.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors considered socio-economic factors, general health status and multiple-drug therapies for the management of periodontitis in older adults and concluded that considering the higher prevalence of chronic medical conditions, it cannot be assumed that periodontal therapy will yield the same degree of success seen in younger individuals.
Abstract: Within the next 40 years the number of older adults worldwide will more than double. This will impact periodontal treatment needs and presents a challenge to health-care providers and governments worldwide, as severe periodontitis has been reported to be the sixth most prevalent medical condition in the world. Older adults (≥ 80 years of age) who receive regular dental care retain more teeth than those who do not receive such care, but routine general dental care for these individuals is not sufficient to prevent the progression of periodontitis with the same degree of success as in younger individuals. There is a paucity of data on the efficacy of different periodontal therapies for older individuals. However, considering the higher prevalence of chronic medical conditions seen in older adults, it cannot be assumed that periodontal therapy will yield the same degree of success seen in younger individuals. Furthermore, medications can influence the status of the periodontium and the delivery of periodontal care. As an example, anticoagulant drugs are common among older patients and may be a contraindication to certain treatments. Newer anticoagulants will, however, facilitate surgical intervention in older patients. Furthermore, prescription medications taken for chronic conditions, such as osteoporosis and cardiovascular diseases, can affect the periodontium in a variety of ways. In summary, consideration of socio-economic factors, general health status and multiple-drug therapies will, in the future, be an important part of the management of periodontitis in older adults.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Although studies on powered brushes have shown evidence for efficacy of biofilm removal and increased patient compliance, they are of short duration, making evaluation of long-term effects difficult to achieve, and incorporating psychosocial aspects of behavioral change, including well-established counseling strategies, such as motivational interviewing, may elicit improved patient outcomes.
Abstract: New data indicate that periodontal diseases are much more prevalent than previously thought, which means that there are large numbers of patients who will need to be diagnosed and treated for periodontal disease in a general dental practice. Oral hygiene procedures performed by patients between office visits are important for gingival health. No particular type of toothbrush has consistently been shown to have superior plaque-removal ability over another. Although studies on powered brushes have shown evidence for efficacy of biofilm removal and increased patient compliance, they are of short duration, making evaluation of long-term effects difficult to achieve. Interdental cleaning with dental floss can be effective but it is technique-sensitive. Interdental brushes have been shown to be superior to floss in plaque index scores, but not in gingival inflammation reduction. A systematic review of oral irrigation reported a beneficial adjunctive effect on bleeding and gingival indices and pocket depth. Antimicrobials in mouthrinses and toothpastes have shown significant reductions in plaque and gingivitis when used correctly. Even though it is considered essential for patients to utilize biofilm-removal techniques on a frequent basis, studies on adherence show that approximately 30-60% of health information is forgotten within 1 h, and 50% of health recommendations are not followed. Incorporating psychosocial aspects of behavioral change, including well-established counseling strategies, such as motivational interviewing, may elicit improved patient outcomes.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This volume of Periodontology 2000 covers the demographics of an aging world, the effect of aging on stem cell function in the periodontium; theperiodontal microbiota associated with aging; the host response in the Periodontium of aging individuals; and the relationship of periodontal disease to noncommunicable chronic diseases.
Abstract: The world's population is aging, and it has been estimated that by 2050, the number of people 65 years of age and older will reach 1.5 billion. The aging population will be affected by noncommunicable chronic diseases, including diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease and cognitive impairment. This important demographic shift includes a reduction in tooth loss/edentulism, particularly in older adults of the developed countries in North America, western Europe and north-east Asia. Therefore, in the future, dental providers will be required to care for an expanded number of older adults who have retained teeth and are medically complex. As the linkage of oral disease and systemic disease has focused on the relationship of periodontitis and noncommunicable chronic diseases, a broad review of ‘geriatric periodontology’ is both timely and important. This volume of Periodontology 2000 covers a range of subjects under this heading. Included are the demographics of an aging world; the effect of aging on stem cell function in the periodontium; the periodontal microbiota associated with aging; the host response in the periodontium of aging individuals; an analysis of the prevalence of periodontitis in the USA on a national, state-wide and community basis; differentiation of physiologic oral aging from disease; treatment of periodontal disease in older adults; implant therapy for older patients; oral disease and the frailty syndrome; the relationship of tooth loss to longevity and life expectancy; and the relationship of periodontal disease to noncommunicable chronic diseases. Although ‘geriatric dentistry’ is not a recognized specialty in dentistry, and ‘geriatric periodontology’ is a descriptive title, the subject of this volume of Periodontology 2000 is critical to the future of clinical dentistry, dental public health and dental research. Any comprehensive focus on older patients can only be accomplished with an emphasis on interprofessional education and practice. If embraced, this shift will allow the dental profession to be more closely aligned with the larger health-care environment, and can improve both oral health and health outcomes for patients seen in the dental office.