Showing papers in "Personnel Psychology in 1999"

The big five personality traits, general mental ability, and career success across the life span

Abstract: The present study investigated the relationship of traits from the 5factor model of personality (often termed the "Big Five") and general mental ability with career success. Career success was argued to be comprised of intrinsic success (job satisfaction) and extrinsic success (income and occupational status) dimensions. Data were obtained from the Intergenerational Studies, a set of 3 studies that followed participants from early childhood to retirement. The most general findings were that conscientiousness positively predicted intrinsic and extrinsic career success, neuroticism negatively predicted extrinsic success, and general mental ability positively predicted extrinsic career success. Personality was related to career success controlling for general mental ability and, though adulthood measures of the Big Five traits were more strongly related to career success than were childhood measures, both contributed unique variance in explaining career success. Considerable evidence has accumulated regarding the antecedents of career success. A recent review of the career success literature (Tharenou, 1997) identified several categories of influences on career success. The most commonly investigated influences were human capital attributes (training, work experience, education) and demographic factors (age, sex, marital status, number of children). Although these classes of influences have provided important insights into the determinants of career success, there is room for further development. Specifically, little research has entertained the idea that career success may have dispositional causes. There have been a few exceptions, such as Howard and Bray's (1988, 1994) study of the career advancement of AT&T managers. However, as Tharenou noted, few studies have taken a more comprehensive, personological approach to career success.

An examination of leadership and employee creativity: the relevance of traits and relationships

Abstract: Creativity is becoming a topic of ever-increasing interest to organizational managers. Thus, there is a need for a greater understanding of the dynamics between the personal and contextual factors responsible for creative performance in work settings. In particular, there is a need to identify the role of leadership for creativity. Until now, creativity studies have examined leadership and employee characteristics from a single-domain perspective. Data from 191 R&D employees of a large chemical company were used to test a multidomain, interactionist creativity model of employee characteristics, leader characteristics, and Leader-Member Exchange (LMX). Results suggest that employee intrinsic motivation and cognitive style, LMX, the interactions between employee intrinsic motivation and leader intrinsic motivation, and between LMX and employee cognitive style relate to employee creative performance as measured by supervisor ratings, invention disclosure forms, or research reports. Implications for practicing managers and research on leadership and creativity are discussed.

Gender differences in negotiation outcome: a meta‐analysis

Abstract: Studies reporting the objective settlements obtained by men and women in negotiations were reviewed. Differences in outcomes were expected due to differences in perceptions, behaviors, and contextual factors between men and women. In the sample of studies, men negotiated significantly better outcomes than women. Opponent sex, relative power of the negotiator, integrative potential of the task, mode of communication and year of the study were tested as moderators of the effect. Although the overall difference in outcomes between men and women was small, none of these hypothesized moderators or several exploratory moderators reversed or eliminated this effect. The organizational significance of the findings is discussed in terms of the glass ceiling, a gender-based earnings differential and women in negotiation positions. Directions for future research in the laboratory and the field are suggested.

Weight-based discrimination in employment: psychological and legal aspects

Abstract: This article takes an interdisciplinary approach to the issue of weight-based discrimination in employment, drawing on diverse literatures (psychology, law, sociology, economics), and integrating a review of empirical research and a traditional legal analysis. First, empirical research that focuses on the extent of bias against overweight individuals in employment contexts is reviewed and evaluated. Second, current legal requirements relevant to weight-based discrimination in employment are identified and discussed, and those requirements are applied to the research findings to assess the extent to which the weight-based bias identified in the reviewed studies involves illegal discrimination. Third, based on the results of the review of the research and legal literatures, future research directions are offered and practical implications for employers and policy makers are identified.

An international look at selection practices: nation and culture as explanations for variability in practice

Abstract: A survey of 959 organizations in 20 countries was undertaken to assess whether differences in staffing practices are due in part to nation and culture. Cultural differences in uncertainty avoidance and, to a lesser extent, power distance, explained some of the national differences observed in the extensiveness of method use. Implications for understanding the best approaches to selection on a global basis are discussed.

Leadership emergence in autonomous work teams: Antecedents and outcomes.

Abstract: The aim of this study was to investigate (a) personality attributes and cognitive ability (g) as determinants of leadership emergence in teams, and (b) the impact of leadership that can emerge from the team leader (operationalized as the team member with the highest leadership score) and other team members (staff) on team performance. Autonomous work team members who had been working together for 13 weeks were studied. Participants were 480 undergraduates in 94 initially leaderless teams of 5 or 6. We found that leadership emergence was associated most strongly with g, followed by conscientiousness, extraversion, and emotional stability. Teams performed best when both the team leader and staff were high in leadership. Furthermore, an effective team leader does not ameliorate the negative affects of a staff low in leadership.

A tale of two job markets: organizational size and its effects on hiring practices and job search behavior

Abstract: Small firms employ half the U.S. private sector workforce, yet recruitment research has traditionally focused on large firms. The present study attempts to advance knowledge on how recruitment practices vary with firm size. Results suggest that the recruitment practices of larger firms are generally more formal and bureaucratic than those of smaller firms. In addition, the study demonstrates that many job seekers have distinct preferences regarding firm size, and that preferred firm size is related to job search behavior. Taken together, these findings suggest that firm size is an overlooked and important aspect of the recruitment/job search context. The processes involved in matching employers and applicants differ so much as a function of firm size that one might argue that large and small firms comprise separate labor markets.

A five‐year study of upward feedback: what managers do with their results matters

Abstract: We present results for 252 target managers over 5 annual administrations of an upward feedback program (i.e., twice as long as any previous study in this area). We show that managers initially rated poor or moderate showed significant improvements in upward feedback ratings over the 5-year period, and that these improvements were beyond what could be expected due to regression to the mean. We also found that (a) managers who met with direct reports to discuss their upward feedback improved more than other managers, and (b) managers improved more in years when they discussed the previous year's feedback with direct reports than in years when they did not discuss the previous year's feedback with direct reports. This is important because it is the first research evidence demonstrating that what managers do with upward feedback is related to its benefits. We use an accountability framework to discuss our results and suggest directions for future research.

Derivation and implications of a meta‐analytic matrix incorporating cognitive ability, alternative predictors, and job performance

Abstract: A variety of recent articles in the personnel selection literature have used analyses of meta-analytically derived matrices to draw general conclusions for the field. The purpose of this article is to construct a matrix that incorporates as complete information as possible on the relationships among cognitive ability measures, three sets of alternative predictors, and job performance, We build upon a starting matrix used by Schmitt, Rodgers, Chan, Sheppard, and Jennings (1997). Mean differences, by race, for each of the measures and the potential for adverse impact of predictor composites are also considered. We demonstrate that the use of alternative predictors alone to predict job performance (in the absence of cognitive ability) lowers the potential for adverse impact. However, in contrast to recent claims, adverse impact continues to occur at many commonly used selection ratios. Future researchers are encouraged to use our matrix and to expand upon it as new primary research becomes available. We also report and reaffirm many methodological lessons along the way, including the many judgment calls that appear in an effort of this magnitude and a reminder that the field could benefit from even greater conceptual care regarding what is labeled an “alternative predictor.” Directions for future meta-analyses and for future primary research activities are also derived.

Assessing company employment image: an example in the fast food industry

Abstract: Historically, there has been little guidance from the recruitment literature on how organizations can assess the image that potential applicants hold of their company as a place to work. We demonstrate the application of a technique for identifying employment image dimensions that are most critical in distinguishing among companies in the same industry, and show how this information can be used to assess companies relative to their competitors on these dimensions. We used a forced-choice inductive methodology to identify relevant dimensions of company employment image in the fast food industry, and randomly assigned high school students (n= 336) and retirees (n= 102) to describe 1 of 8 well-known fast food companies on the dimensions. In addition, respondents indicated their general image of the targeted company as a place to work. We were able to identify dimensions that both discriminated between companies and predicted general image, and graphically benchmarked one company against other companies on image dimensions.

Riasec types and big five traits as predictors of employment status and nature of employment

Abstract: This prospective study investigated the validity of the Five-Factor Model (FFM) of personality and Holland's RIASEC vocational interest typology in predicting employment status and the nature of employment in a sample of graduating college seniors as they entered the job market. A sample of 934 senior college graduates enrolled in various academic subjects filled in Costa and McCrae's NEO-PI-R (1992) and Holland's Self-Directed Search (1979). One year after graduation, they were requested to describe their labor market positions and jobs, using the Position Classification Inventory (PCI; Gottfredson & Holland, 1991). Six hundred and twelve people responded to the second call, of whom 335 were employed and 66 unemployed. The incremental validity of the 2 models over and above each other was investigated in the sample of employed and unemployed subjects (N= 401) using stepwise regression analysis. The results showed that Extraversion and Conscientiousness were the only valid predictors of employment status and that vocational interests did not show incremental validity over and above these factors. The RIASEC types, however, were clearly superior in explaining the nature of employment, underscoring the validity of Holland's hexagonal calculus assumptions. Employment reflecting Realistic, Social and Enterprising characteristics was to a limited extent predicted by four of the Big Five, except Neuroticism, over and above the RIASEC types. The findings are discussed in the framework of Schneider's Attraction-Selection-Attrition (ASA) theory (1987) concluding that Holland's RIASEC model is more employee-driven, being better at predicting the nature of employment, whereas the FFM is more employer-oriedted, with greater validity in evaluating the employability and employment status of applicants.

Hr outsourcing and its impact: the role of transaction costs

Abstract: Although HR activities have traditionally been performed in-house, organizations are increasingly relying on outside contractors to perform these activities. Using a Transaction Cost Economics perspective, this study examined whether organizational-level factors moderated the relationship between the degree of reliance on HR outsourcing and the perceived benefits produced by outsourcing. Moderated regression was performed using data provided by over 300 HR executives on outsourcing levels, organizational characteristics, and the perceived impact of outsourcing. Support was found for a number of the transaction cost hypotheses regarding the impact of organizational characteristics. Specifically, the relationship between the degree of outsourcing and the perceived benefits generated was moderated by reliance on idiosyncratic HR practices, uncertainty, firm size, and cost pressures. No support was found for hypotheses regarding the moderating effect associated with pay level, overall outsourcing emphasis, or strategic involvement by HR.

The effects of information management policies on reactions to human resource information systems: an integration of privacy and procedural justice perspectives

Abstract: The goal of the present study was to extend research on information privacy and fairness by examining these constructs within the context of human resource information systems. Using a 2 × 2 experimental design and data from 124 employed subjects in an organization that was in the process of developing a human resource information system, the present study examined the main and interactive effects of policies concerning ability to authorize disclosure (ability to authorize vs. no ability to authorize) and target of disclosure (internal to the organization vs. external to the organization) on invasion of privacy perceptions and fairness perceptions. Results of multivariate and univariate analyses of variance indicated that the independent variables had main and interactive effects on both fairness perceptions and invasion of privacy perceptions. Moreover, a confirmatory factor analysis suggested that invasion of privacy perceptions and fairness perceptions are distinct constructs. Implications of these findings for theory and practice are discussed.

Effects of advertised human resource management practices on attraction of african american applicants

Abstract: Student members of a national organization of African American engineers (n= 1019) and currently employed African American engineers (n= 303) responded to a hypothetical job advertisement differing by staffing policy (identity-blind vs. identity-conscious), advertised work characteristics (i.e., individual-based vs. team-based), and compensation system characteristics (pay based on individual performance vs. pay based on work-group performance). Both groups of respondents reported being more likely to apply when the staffing policy was identity conscious (i.e., affirmative action) than when it was identity blind (i.e., equal-employment opportunity). However, only the student sample reported being more likely to apply when the advertisement described team-based work instead of individual-based work. Both groups reacted negatively to the combination of individual-based work and group-performance based pay systems.

Further studies of situational tests

Abstract: In the present paper, results are reported for two different situational judgment tests (SJT) used in validation studies with almost 4,000 employees in 7 different organizations. Across the 2 studies, it was shown that situational test scores were significantly related to performance (weighted average r= .19), cognitive ability (weighted average r= .45), and experience (weighted average r= .20). In one study, there was a slight tendency for experience and cognitive ability to interact in the prediction of situational judgment, such that cognitive ability became less predictive as experience increased. Situational judgment fully mediated the effects of cognitive ability in one study, but not in the other. Finally, SJT race effect sizes were consistent with past research and, while not trivial, smaller than those typically observed for cognitive ability tests. The studies yielded very similar results despite the use of different keying methods (empirical vs. subject matter expert opinion). The preponderance of the evidence indicates that situational judgment measures mediate avariety of job relevant skills. Limitations to these studies and directions for future research are reviewed.

Employee attitude surveys in a multinational organization: considering language and culture in assessing measurement equivalence

Abstract: The cross-cultural equivalence of a multinational employee opinion survey was examined using multiple-groups covariance structure analysis to examine 4 scales in 4 countries. Cultural and linguistic influences were considered by assessing equivalence across 2 pairs of countries having the same language but different cultures (U.S. and Australia, Mexico and Spain) and across countries differing in culture and language (U.S. and Mexico). The measure was equivalent across U.S. and Australian samples only. Analyses indicated items that were the source of lack of invariance. One cause explored was translation problems. Practical issues in assessing measurement equivalence in employee opinion surveys are discussed.

The effects of interrater and self‐other agreement on performance improvement following upward feedback

Abstract: This study investigated (a) whether performance improvement following upward feedback is related to self-other rating discrepancies, (b) how self-ratings change after feedback, and (c) whether agreement among raters influences performance improvement. Self-ratings and subordinate ratings were collected from 1,888 managers at 2 points in time 1 year apart. Using polynomial regression equations, we determined that managers who overrated themselves relative to how others rated them tended to improve their performance from 1 year to the next, and underraters tended to decline. This is consistent with what would be predicted by self-consistency theory (Korman, 1976). Self-ratings tended to decrease for overraters and increase for underraters, but this effect was not constant throughout the range of self-ratings. Agreement among subordinate raters was negatively related to performance improvement, but this is likely a reflection of differential regression to the mean.

Multifaceted conceptions of self–other ratings disagreement.

Abstract: Self-other ratings disagreement (S-ORD) is the extent to which one's self-rating of performance differs from ratings made by Other people (e.g., supervisors). As increasing number of organizations adopt self-assessment as a tool for managing performance, S-ORD is becoming a central concern in performance appraisal research. Most past research, however, only examines S-ORD in terms of the levels of ratings, and ignores other forms of disagreement. This paper identifies 7 different forms of S-ORD that are detectable through the use of confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The causes for each form of S-ORD are discussed, as well as its conceptual and practical implications. The procedure is illustrated by comparing 332 managers' self-evaluations with their supervisors' evaluations. An extension of the CFA model to a full structural equation model is used to illustrate and discuss the fragmentary nature of existing approaches to S-ORD. It is shown that valid inferences concerning S-ORD cannot be made unless various forms of S-ORD, and not merely the differences in overall ratings, are detected and dealt with.

Exploring the boundary conditions for interview validity: meta‐analytic validity findings for a new interview type

Abstract: This study uses meta-analysis of an extensive predictive validity data-base to explore the boundary conditions for the validity of. the structured interview as presented by McDaniel, Whetzel, Schmidt, and Maurer (1994). The interview examined here differs from traditional structured interviews in being empirically constructed, administered by telephone, and scored later based on a taped transcript. Despite these and other differences, this nontraditional employment interview was found to have essentially the same level of criterion-related validity for supervisory ratings of job performance reported by McDaniel for other structured employment interviews. These findings suggest that a variety of different approaches to the construction, administration, and scoring of structured employment interviews may lead to comparable levels of validity. We hypothesize that this result obtains because different types of structured interviews all measure to varying degrees constructs with known generalizable validity (e.g., conscientiousness and general mental ability). The interview examined here was also found to be a valid predictor of production records, sales volume, absenteeism, and job tenure.

Personality measures and biodata: evidence regarding their incremental predictive value in the life insurance industry

Abstract: This study examines the extent to which a theoretically based set of personality measures can add incremental validity to an existing biodata instrument in terms of predicting both traditional (task) and expanded (contextual) dimensions of performance in the life insurance industry. Four of the Big Five measures of personality predicted contextual performance while just the Extraversion scale predicted task performance. This study demonstrates that personality measures can provide significant incremental prediction of contextual performance over biodata, and vice versa.

Perceived fairness of layoffs among individuals who have been laid off: a longitudinal study

Abstract: This longitudinal study examined 3 layoff-specific (explanation, correctability, and severance benefits) and 2 person-centered (negative affectivity and prior organizational commitment) variables as predictors of layoff victims' judgments of layoff fairness, willingness to endorse the terminating organization, desire to take the previous employer to court, and willingness to commit to future employers. In addition, this study assessed how reemployment moderated these relationships. The results highlighted the importance of receiving an explanation from organizations about how and why layoffs were conducted. Explanation was associated with higher perceived fairness of the layoff, higher willingness to endorse the terminating organization, and less desire to sue that organization, even after reemployment. Four predictor-outcome relationships were moderated by reemployment status.

Revisiting met expectations as a reason why realistic job previews work

Abstract: This study reanalyzed data from an examination by Hom, Griffeth, Palich, and Bracker (1998) of the mechanisms by which posthire realistic job previews reduce turnover. Irving and Meyer (1999) argued that Hom et al. overstated support for their mediation theory by calculating residual difference scores (errors derived from predicting experienced attainment of job outcomes from initial expectations of outcomes) to operationalize met expectations. Rather, Irving and Meyer showed that methodological weaknesses associated with difference scores also plague residual difference scores. Prompted by their demonstration, this research applied partial correlations (partialing out experienced outcomes from residual differences) and Edwards' (1994) polynomial regression approach to verify whether met expectations underlie realistic previews' effectiveness. These reanalyses disputed met expectations. As a result, this inquiry revised the formulation advocated by Hom et al. (1998), positing that coping strategies and perceptions of employer concern account for how posthire previews work.

Academic research inside organizations: inputs, processes, and outcomes

Abstract: Although many opinions have been expressed about the potential merits and pitfalls of conducting academic research inside organizations, empirical research on the question is nearly nonexistent. Consequently, the present study examined the origins, processes, and outcomes of 141 academic research projects that were conducted in (nonacademic) organizations and published in 4 top-tier industria organizational psychology and management journals over a 3-year period. Three outcomes were assessed: implementation of research findings, academic organizational relationship continuation, and research impact (as measured by other-author citations). Results suggested a number of relationships between the way projects began, the relative contributions of organizations and authors to the research process, and eventual outcomes. Suggestions for future research are offered.

On using residual difference scores in the measurement of congruence: the case of met expectations research

Abstract: Despite meta-analytic support for the met expectations hypothesis, Irving and Meyer (1994, 1995) suggested that methodological problems such as the use of difference scores and retrospective measures of met expectations have resulted in an overstatement of this support. In a recent article, Hom, Griffeth, Palich, and Bracker (1998) simultaneously tested several potential psychological mediating mechanisms of realistic job preview (RJP) effects. These authors suggested that met expectations is a critical mediating mechanism, having direct effects on job satisfaction and indirect effects on organizational commitment, withdrawal cognitions, and actual turnover through job satisfaction and other mediating mechanisms such as coping efficacy and perceived employer honesty. However, they used “residual gain scores” to measure met expectations. In this article, we demonstrate that the use of residual scores for the purposes of operationalizing met expectations creates the same problemsas does the use of difference scores a technique that has been widely criticized in the literature.

The measurement of work: hierachical representation of the multimethod job design questionnaire

Abstract: To study the changing nature of work, researchers need measures of work that are valid and comprehensive. One potentially useful measure of work is the Multimethod Job Design Questionnaire (MJDQ; Campion, 1988), which was developed to assess 4 general approaches to work design (i.e., motivational, mechanistic, biological, perceptualmotor). Although the MJDQ holds promise as a general measure of work, little information is available regarding its psychometric properties. This study examines the MJDQ, using alternative hierarchical factor structures to represent work at varying levels of abstraction. Little support was found for the 4-factor structure corresponding to the work design approaches underling the MJDQ or for various hierarchical factor structures that simultaneously depicted general and specific aspects of work. However, a 10-factor first-order model received good support and may provide a useful basis for scoring and interpreting the MJDQ in future research.

Generalizable biographical data validity can be achieved without multi-organizational development and keying

Abstract: This research showed that the validity of a biodata instrument developed and keyed within a single organization can generalize to other organizations. It also examines a criterion measure-rate of promotional progress-that has not been used extensively in biodata research, but has several characteristics that make its use attractive. The validity of the biodata component of the Manager Profile Record (MPR), developed and keyed within a single organization, as a predictor of rate of managerial progress was cross-validated on a sample of 7,334 managers and staff professionals in 24 organizations. Results indicate the MPR was a valid predictor of rate of promotional progress across all organizations and that validity did not vary greatly across organizations (p= .53, SDp= .05). The MPR was also a valid predictor for both sexes, as well as for managers of all age groups, lengths of company service, and education levels. These findings demonstrate that multiple-firm development and keying of a biodata instrument was not required for generalizable validity, and argue against the hypothesis of situational specificity. Suggestions for developing biodata instruments in single organizations that will generalize to other organizations include careful attention to the validity and reliability of criterion measures and developing validity at the item level.

Analysis of work group productivity in an applied setting: application of a time series panel design

Abstract: We provide a demonstration of a time series panel analysis applied under typical field research conditions characterized by (a) a small number of groups (b) all of which experience an intervention (thus there is no traditional control group), and (c) perform noncomparable tasks. The time series techniques allow a direct test of Naylor, Pritchard, and Ilgen's (1980) theory of behavior in organizations applied to work group productivity in a large-scale study of work groups conducted by Pritchard and colleagues (1989). The responses of 5 work groups to priority scores for 37 indicators of productivity over 23 months were used to predict month-by-month changes in productivity for each of the 37 group products. The results show that group productivity improvements can be explained by feedback including priority scores derived from nonlinear contingency functions of the productivity indicators. Furthermore, groups differed in their response to priority feedback. Goal setting positively affected productivity gain consistently across work groups, after the effects of priority feedback and the interaction of work groups with priority feedback were accounted for. Implications for group performance strategies and appropriate applications of the time series panel analysis are discussed.

Generalizing physical ability test validity: a case study using test transportability, validity generalization, and construct‐related validation evidence

Abstract: This paper describes a field study using Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ; McCormick, Jeanneret, & Mecham, 1972) data to support inferences of physical ability test (PAT) validity at a large utility company. The project developed a test transportability procedure using worker-oriented job analysis, and was based on synthesizing the findings of an earlier consortium project (American Gas Association, 1990), recent validity generalization evidence, and findings from a variety of physical ability construct-related research projects published or presented since the completion of the original consortium study. Selected PAQ divisional dimension scores for 95 jobs were analyzed via cluster analysis to develop five physical demand job families. Statistically derived job families were modified very slightly based on reviews by subject matter experts who found PAQ-derived job family structures quite reasonable (agreement of 95% between statistical and rational procedures). PAQ strength attributes were used to estimate the physical demands underlying job families. The statistical and analytic procedures developed and reported here could be applied in other organizational settings, and allow broader applicability of the PAT than would a task-based transportability model.