Showing papers in "Psychological Assessment in 1997"

The validation of a self-report measure of posttraumatic stress disorder : The Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale

Abstract: The present article reports on the development and validation of a self-report measure of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), the Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale (PTDS), that yields both a PTSD diagnosis according to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.; American Psychiatric Association, 1994; DSM-IV) criteria and a measure of PTSD symptom severity. Two-hundred forty-eight participants who had experienced a wide variety of traumas (e.g., accident, fire, natural disaster, assault, combat) were administered the PTSD module of the Structured Clinical Interview (SCID; Spitzer, Williams, Gibbons, & First, 1990), the PTDS, and scales measuring trauma-related psychopathology. The PTDS demonstrated high internal consistency and test-retest reliability, high diagnostic agreement with SCID, and good sensitivity and specificity. The satisfactory validity of the PTDS was further supported by its high correlations with other measures of trauma-related psychopathology. Therefore, the PTDS appears to be a useful tool for screening and assessing current PTSD in clinical and research settings.

Hierarchical structure and general factor saturation of the Anxiety Sensitivity Index : Evidence and implications

Abstract: Boston University The Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI) is one of the most widely used measures of the construct of anxiety sensitivity. Until the recent introduction of a hierarchical model of the ASI by S. Lilienfeld, Turner, and Jacob (1993), the factor structure of the ASI was the subject of debate, with some researchers advocating a unidimensional structure and others proposing multidimensional structures. In the present study, involving 432 outpatients seeking treatment at an anxiety disorders clinic and 32 participants with no mental disorder, the authors tested a hierarchical factor model. The results supported a hierarchical factor structure consisting of 3 lower order factors and 1 higher order factor. It is estimated that the higher order, general factor accounts for 60% of the variance in ASI total scores. The implications of these findings for the conceptualization and assessment of anxiety sensitivity are discussed. Reiss and his colleagues (Reiss, 1987; Reiss & McNally, 1985; Reiss, Peterson, Gursky, & McNally, 1986) have defined the construct of anxiety sensitivity (AS) as fear of anxiety and physical sensations related to anxiety, and they hypothesize that this fear arises from beliefs that anxiety and related physical sensations have harmful somatic, psychological, or social conse- quences. AS and closely related constructs have played a central role in recent theorizing about the nature and etiology of the anxiety disorders in general and panic disorder in particular (e.g., Barlow, 1988, 1991; Clark, 1986; Goldstein & Chambless, 1978; McNally, 1990; Reiss, 1991; Reiss & McNally, 1985; Reiss et al., 1986). Reiss et al. (1986) created one of the most Richard E. Zinbarg, Department of Psychology, University of Oregon; David H. Barlow and Timothy A. Brown, Center for Anxiety and Related Disorders, Boston University. This work was supported in part by Grant RO1M-39096 from the National Institute of Mental Health and by a Shannon Award (1 R55 MH/OD53425-01A1 ) from the National Institute of Mental Health. We are grateful to the individuals who graciously consented to serve as judges for the matching task. The judges included seven PhD-level psy- chologists with expertise in clinical psychology (Anne Marie Albano, Janet Borden, Paul Collins, Peter M. Lewinsohn, Susan Mineka, Anne Simons, and Robert Weiss), two PhD-level psychologists with expertise in personality and factor analysis (Lewis R. Goldberg, William R. Re- velle), and three graduate students in clinical psychology who had just completed an anxiety assessment and treatment practicum with Richard E. Zinbarg (Leslie Dana, Amy Reiss, Carie Rodgers). We thank Stephen Haynes, Scott O. Lilienfeld, Janet Mohlman, and Steven Taylor for their extensive and helpful comments on earlier versions of this article. We also thank Brian Cox, Steven Taylor, and Sherry Stewart for graciously providing the factor loadings from their analyses that have not yet been published. We are also grateful to Steven Taylor for providing the factor loadings from Peterson and Heilbronner's (1987) four-factor solution because these results are unpublished. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Rich- ard E. Zinbarg, Department of Psychology, 1227 University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon 97403-1227. Electronic mall may be sent via the In- ternet to rzin@oregon.uoregon.edu. 277 widely used measures of the AS construct, known as the Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI). Until recently, there has been considerable debate surrounding the issue of the factor structure of the ASI. On the one hand, Reiss et al. (1986) and several other researchers (e.g., Pe- terson & Heilbronner, 1987; Reiss, Peterson, & Gursky, 1988; Sandin, Chorot, & McNally, 1996; Stewart, Dubois-Nguyen, & Pihl, 1990; Taylor, Koch, & Crockett, 1991; Taylor, Koch, McNally, & Crockett, 1992) advocated a unidimensional struc- ture, whereas others (e.g,, Telch, Shermis, & Lewis, 1989; War- die, Ahmad, & Hayward, 1990) advocated a multidimensional structure including as many as four factors. The debate regarding the factor structure of the ASI appears to have been largely resolved by a hierarchical model proposed by Lilienfeld, Turner, and Jacob (1993). Their model is hierar- chical in that it contains several first-order factors that aU load on a single, higher order factor. Furthermore, it is capable of integrating many of the apparently discrepant findings in the literature by suggesting that those investigators who have advo- cated a multifactor solution were focused on the lower level of the hierarchy, whereas those who have advocated a single-factor solution were focused on the higher level. Indeed, the hierarchi- cal model appears to have been largely accepted by Taylor (1995a), who was formerly one of the main proponents of the unifactorial view. Given the relatively long history of hierarchi- cal models of intelligence, an analogy to the structure of intelli- gence may be useful. Within a hierarchical model of intelligence, the identification of separable lower order factors would not dispute the existence of a general intelligence factor. Fur exam- ple, at least two group factors (e.g., Verbal and Spatial) in addition to a general factor of intelligence are hypothesized in Vernon's (1969) model of intelligence. Similarly, Lilienfeld et al. suggested that there may be group factors (i.e., common to some but not all items) and a general factor (i.e., common to nearly all items) underlying the ASI. Although a hierarchical model has promise for resolving con- troversies in this area, appropriate tests of the hierarchical nature

The Test of Memory Malingering (TOMM): Normative data from cognitively intact and cognitively impaired individuals.

Abstract: Four experiments were undertaken to validate the Test of Memory Malingering (TOMM). In the first 3 experiments, the TOMM was administered to 475 community-dwelling individuals and 161 neurologically impaired patients (traumatic brain injury, aphasia, cognitive impairment, and dementia). Both clinica

Validation of the Social Interaction Anxiety Scale and the Social Phobia Scale across the anxiety disorders.

Abstract: The psychometric adequacy of the Social Interaction Anxiety Scale (SIAS; R. P. Mattick & J. C. Clark, 1989), a measure of social interaction anxiety, and the Social Phobia Scale (SPS; R. P. Mattick & J. C. Clarke, 1989), a measure of anxiety while being observed by others, was evaluated in anxious patients and normal controls. Social phobia patients scored higher on both scales and were more likely to be identified as having social phobia than other anxious patients (except for agoraphobic patients on the SPS) or controls. Clinician-rated severity of social phobia was moderately related to SIAS and SPS scores. Additional diagnoses of mood or panic disorder did not affect SIAS or SPS scores among social phobia patients, but an additional diagnosis of generalized anxiety disorder was associated with higher SIAS scores. Number of reported feared social interaction situations was more highly correlated with scores on the SIAS, whereas number of reported feared performance situations was more highly correlated with scores on the SPS. These scales appear to be useful in screening, designing individualized treatments, and evaluating the outcomes of treatments for social phobia.

Shortening the CES-D to improve its ability to detect cases of depression

Abstract: Psychometric analyses evaluated how primary care patients with and without major depressive disorder endorsed individual response options on the Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Scale (CES-D; L. S. Radloff, 1977). The analyses were then used to identify a subset of items that when appropriately weighted improved the efficiency with which depressed individuals were identified. Efficiency of the revised measure was evaluated relative to standard cutpoints used with the full scale. Results showed that some improvement in most indices of efficiency could be achieved with half as many items and a simplified scoring scheme, but great improvement in one measure was usually achieved only at the expense of other measures of efficiency. The efficiency of the CES-D can be improved with appropriate analytic techniques, but its limitations as a self-report screening measure persist.

Information-gathering and therapeutic models of assessment: Complementary paradigms.

Abstract: The authors reviewed the other articles in the special section and commented on the use of psychological assessment to plan treatment. They call this view of assessment the information-gathering paradigm, because the goal is to collect data that will aid in communication and decision making about clients. This contrasts with the therapeutic model of assessment, in which the major goal is to produce positive change in clients. The authors summarized evidence of the efficacy of assessment as a brief therapy and discussed its possible therapeutic mechanisms. The information-gathering and therapeutic models of assessment are complementary rather than mutually exclusive, and both speak to the utility of assessment. The current crisis in the clinical use of psychological assessment may be due in part to an overemphasis on the information-gathering model.

Do partners agree about abuse in their relationship?: A psychometric evaluation of interpartner agreement.

Abstract: This study tested whether partners can be relied on to provide congruent reports about abuse in their relationship. The authors examined whether interpartner agreement (IA) varies as a function of whether the perpetrator is the man or the woman, and by whether the abusive behavior being reported is physical or psychological. Guided by psychometric test theory, the authors examined whether weak IA about specific behaviors can be improved by aggregating behavior items into scales and by controlling for random measurement error. A representative sample of 360 young couples was studied. IA did not vary with the perpetrator's gender or with the nature of the abusive behaviors, but victims (both men and women) reported somewhat more abuse than did their perpetrators. IA about specific abusive behaviors was only poor to fair, but it became very good when items were aggregated into scales and even better when measurement errors were removed from the reports. The findings suggest that reports of abuse can be aggregated to form internally consistent scales that show strong IA, thereby fulfilling criteria for reliability. Moreover, under research conditions that guarantee confidentiality, either abuser reports or victim reports are suitable methods for use in research on partner abuse.

Assessment of Psychopathy in a Population of Incarcerated Adolescent Offenders

Abstract: The reliability, validity, and factor structure of a modified version of the Psychopathy ChecklistRevised (PCL-R) for adolescents was investigated, completed using file information only, in a sample of incarcerated Black and White male adolescents. Interrater reliability and internal consistency were high, and confirmatory factor analyses and coefficients of congruence showed that the factor structure in this sample resembled the 2-factor solution found in adults. No significant racial differences were found for reliability or mean PCL-R scores. In addition, relationships between PCL-R scores and psychometric measures and behavioral indicators of maladjustment were similar to those previously found in adult populations. The construct of psychopathy, as defined by the PCLR modified for use with adolescents, appears applicable to both Black and White adolescent male offenders. The study gives evidence for the structural and substantive validity of the modified PCLR in this population. The Psychopathy Checklist--Revised (PCL-R; Hare, 1991 ) has proven reliable and useful in subgrouping adult offenders who are incarcerated, White, and male. This study examined the usefulness of this instrument with a population of incarcerated Black and White male adolescent offenders.

Parent and teacher ratings of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms: Factor structure and normative data.

Abstract: Changes in the diagnostic criteria for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have necessitated the creation of new measures for clinical assessment. The factor structure of a parent rating scale containing the 18 symptoms of ADHD was examined in this study. Factor analyses and assessment of differences in ADHD ratings across sex, age, and ethnic group were conducted using a sample of 4666 participants ranging in age from 4 to 20 years old who attended kindergarten through 12th grade in 22 school districts across the United States. Two factors (Inattention and Hyperactivity-Impulsivity) were derived and normative data for a nationally representative sample are presented. A higher frequency of ADHD symptoms was found for boys, younger children, and African-American participants. Potential uses of this scale in clinical practice and research are discussed.

Development and validation of the pain response inventory for children.

Abstract: The Pain Response Inventory (PRI) was developed as a multidimensional instrument to assess children's coping responses to recurrent pain. The PRI assesses 3 broad coping factors—Active, Passive, and Accommodative—each with subscales representing specific strategies for coping with pain. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to derive and cross-validate the factor structure of the PRI in 3 different samples of children and adolescents: school children, abdominal pain patients, and former abdominal pain patients. The subscales were found to be internally consistent and reasonably stable. Validity of the subscales was assessed by examining the relations of particular coping strategies to various outcome indicators, including functional disability, somatization symptoms, and depressive symptoms. Results indicated that different types of health outcome were predicted by different patterns of PRI coping strategies, thus supporting the utility of a multidimensional approach to the assessment of coping responses to pain. With the formulation of the gate-control theory of pain (Melzack & Wall, 1965), it became generally recognized that the experience of pain is not a purely sensory phenomenon related to tissue damage. Rather, it is also influenced by cognitive, behavioral, and emotional factors. This model suggests that effective pain management cannot rely solely on interventions directed at the source of tissue damage but also must include interventions designed to modify psychosocial factors that affect nociceptive processing (McGrath & Hillier, 1996). This multidimensional model of pain has been the impetus for the rapid growth in behavioral science research on pain in the past two decades. Cognitive and behavioral responses to pain, often studied under the rubric of "coping with pain," are of particular interest because they may be amenable to change through interventions by health professionals. Moreover, such coping responses may significantly lessen pain and associated disability and thereby complement and even decrease the need for more invasive pharmacological or surgical interventions. Studies of adult pain patients suggest that certain coping strategies (typically ' 'passive'' strategies, such as taking to bed, restricting one's activities, or

An Item Response Theory Analysis of the Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised

Abstract: Hare's Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R; R D Hare, 1991) is the measure of choice for measuring psychopathic personality disorder An item response theory (IRT) approach was adopted to analyze both test and item functioning Data from 2,067 North American participants were analyzed The analysis confirmed that the test was appropriate for both the diagnosis of psychopathic personality disorder and for making measures of trait strength Two correlated but distinct factors underpin scores on the PCL-R: Factor 1, Selfish, Callous, and Remorseless Use of Others, and Factor 2, Chronically Unstable and Antisocial Life style Items related to Factor 1 are generally more discriminating and provide more information about the trait than items relating to Factor 2 Future uses of IRT procedures in the analysis of PCL-R data are discussed

Assessment of family relationship characteristics: A measure to explain risk for antisocial behavior and depression among urban youth

Abstract: Two large samples of urban families were used to develop and cross-validate an assessment model and a measure to tap basic family processes and risk among diverse ethnic groups. Six scales (Cohesion, Beliefs About Family, Deviant Beliefs, Organization, Support, and Communication) produced a 3-dimension higher order factor model (Cohesion, Structure, and Beliefs). Tests support reliance on composite family scoring. Most scales and each higher order factor relate to depression, and aggression. Relations vary little by age, ethnicity, marital status of parent, or family income. Implications for family assessment methodology and risk models are discussed.

Individual differences science for treatment planning: Personality traits.

Abstract: Emory University Evolving ethical, legal, and financial demands require a plan before treatment begins. The authors argue that individual differences research requires the inclusion of personality trait assessment for the construction and implementation of any treatment plan that would lay claim to scientific status. A primer of personality individual differences for treatment planning is presented, including an introduction to constructive realism and major research findings from trait psychology and behavior genetics bearing on treatment plannilag. The authors present 4 important gains for treatment planning that can be realized from the science of individual differences in personality: (a) knowing where to focus change efforts, (b) realistic expectations, (c) matching treatment to personality, and (d) development of the self. Gone are the days when a therapist could delay planning and simply allow therapy to unfold. Instead, evolving ethical demands (e.g., informed consent), legal demands (e.g., liability management, mandated record keeping), and financial demands (e.g., third-party preapproval) require a plan before treatment begins. In this article, we show that science makes demands as well. The last 40 years of individual differences research require the inclusion of personality trait assessment for the construction and implementation of any treatment plan that would lay claim to scientific status. Science Should Guide Treatment Planning

Psychometric evaluation of the Beck Anxiety Inventory with older medical patients.

Abstract: Disadvantaged older medical outpatients (N = 197; ages 55-92) completed the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI). The instrument demonstrated high intemal consistency and no significant differences by sex or race, suggesting that it is appropriate to use with diverse populations. Total BAI score correlated negatively with age. Confirmatory factor analysis revealed a good fit to a 4-factor model consisting of cognitive, autonomic, neuromotor, and panic symptoms. Although scores on the BAI and 2 widely used depression scales were significantly correlated, factor analysis distinguished BAI and depression scale items, suggesting that the instruments measure distinct constructs. These findings suggest that the BAI could serve as a valuable screening test for anxiety symptoms among primary care patients who are older and have low income.

Factor structure of the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale in schizophrenia

Abstract: The authors report the results of a confirmatory factor analysis of symptoms assessed with the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS) in a sample of 474 patients with schizophrenia, replicated in an independent sample of 327 patients. The most commonly used 5-factor solution for the BPRS fit the data poorly. Exploratory factor analyses performed on the first sample led to the specification of a 4-factor model that included Thought Disturbance, Anergia, Affect, and Disorganization. Confirmatory factor analyses on both samples indicated that the 4-factor model fit the data better than the previously proposed factor structure for the BPRS. Future research on the BPRS in schizophrenia should use the 4-factor model identified in this study.

Distress and self-restraint as measures of adjustment across the life span: Confirmatory factor analyses in clinical and nonclinical samples.

Abstract: The Weinberger Adjustment Inventory (WAI; D Weinberger & G Schwartz, 1990) was designed as a hierarchical self-report measure of general social-emotional adjustment in older children and adults The superordinate constructs of distress (ie, anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, and low well-being) and self-restraint (ie, impulse control, suppression of aggression, consideration of others, and responsibility) are each operationalized as a composite of 4 subscales Confirmatory factor analyses were conducted using 6 samples (ns = 153-392; N = 1,486) The factor structure was highly comparable with a mean comparative fit index (CFI) of968 for youth (ages 10-17), young adults (ages 18-30), and adults (ages 31-65) within both clinical outpatient and nonclinical populations The results suggest that there may be little justification for the routine practice of using different measures of general adjustment when investigating older children vs adults

A new method for assessing the interpersonal behavior of psychopathic individuals: Preliminary validation studies.

Abstract: Two studies examined whether increased attention to interpersonal behaviors would improve assessments of the personality core underlying psychopathy. After item analysis, 21 items measuring interpersonal interactions and nonverbal behaviors associated with psychopathy were retained as the Interpersonal Measure of Psychopathy (IM-P). Federal prison inmates (Study 1, N = 98) and undergraduates (Study 2, N = 92) were rated on occurrence of these behaviors during an interview conducted to complete either Hare's Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) or Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL: SV). In both studies, IM-P scores correlated more highly with PCL Factor 1 than with PCL Factor 2 scores. Regression analyses indicated that, after controlling for demographic variables and PCL factor scores, IM-P scores predicted interviewer emotional responses and participants' adult fighting (Study 1) and ratings of participants' interpersonal dominance (Study 2). Thus, measurement of interpersonal behavior appears to permit improved prediction of several criteria linked to the personality core of psychopathy.

Therapeutic Effects of Providing MMPI-2 Test Feedback to Clients at a University Counseling Service: A Collaborative Approach.

Abstract: This study examined the therapeutic effects of sharing Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory2 (MMPI-2) assessment results with clients. It is based on an earlier study by S. E. Finn and M. E. Tbnsager (1992). Participants were 60 university students seeking psychological services from a university counseling service. All participants completed the MMPI-2 and several outcome measures. Within 2 weeks of completing the assessment, clients in the experimental group received test feedback, using a collaborative model developed by S. E. Finn (1996). Clients in the control group received test feedback only after having completed the final outcome measures and following a delay of 1 week. Compared with the control group, those who received test feedback within the time frame of the experimental conditions reported a significant increase in self-esteem immediately following the feedback session and a significant decrease in symptomatic distress at a 2-week follow-up. Overall, the findings provide further evidence for the efficacy of psychological assessment as an effective therapeutic intervention.

A Confirmatory Test of Hierarchical Expectancy Structure and Predictive Power: Discriminant Validation of the Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire.

Abstract: Although a hierarchical structure of alcohol expectancies has been hypothesized, until recently confirmatory methods for testing such a model have been unavailable. Using concurrent data from 446 young adults entering college for the first time, this study applied new hierarchical models for confirmatory factor analysis to the Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire. Then, using prospective drinking data from 428 participants, it evaluated the contribution of both common (higher order) and unique (first-order) expectancy variance to the prediction of alcohol use 1 year later. Results supported the hierarchical structure of alcohol expectancies and indicated that associated common and unique variance reliably predicted alcohol use. One uniqueness (social-physical pleasure) outpredicted the common variance. The theoretical (process) implications of these findings are discussed.

Normative Data for the MMPI-2 in Child Custody Litigation.

Abstract: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) norms based on 508 child custody litigants are presented. Defensive underreporting and self-favorability were often exhibited along with an elevation on the Over-Controlled Hostility (O-H) scale. Highest mean clinical scale scores were Hysteria, Paranoia, and Psychopathic Deviate. Differences were not found among mothers, fathers, and stepparents, indicating that a single set of norms is suitable. Findings highlight the importance of context specificity in personality assessment. Proper interpretation of personality inventories in child custody disputes needs to consider both the norms of the standardization sample and the litigants' reference norms. It was not possible to determine from the MMPI-2 per se whether a defensive approach overestimates mental health in a psychologically healthy population or conceals symptomatology in psychologically disturbed persons.

Factor Structure of the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale.

Abstract: The Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS) is one of the most widely used measures of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) symptoms (W. K. Goodman et al., 1989). The purpose of this study was to examine the dimensions underlying the Y-BOCS by performing a confirmatory factor analysis of the scale using responses from a large sample of patients. The results support a 2-factor model of OCD symptoms. The first factor reflected the degree of disturbance caused by OCD symptoms, and the second factor reflected the severity of OCD symptoms.

Suicidal ideation in adolescents: Psychometric properties of the suicidal ideation questionnaire in a clinical sample.

Abstract: The psychometric properties of the Suicidal Ideation Questionnaire (SIQ; W.M. Reynolds, 1987) were evaluated in a clinical sample of adolescents ages 13-18 years identified as suicide ideators (n = 67), attempters (n = 88), and psychiatric controls (n = 71). Results indicate that the SIQ is an internally consistent measure of 1 primary dimension of suicidal cognition and that it differentiates between hospitalized suicidal and nonsuicidal adolescents and those with and without mood disorders. Critical items indicating specific suicidal cognitions were empirically identified, and a cutoff score of 20 was found to have optimal clinical utility. The SIQ appears to be a sound measure for clinical and research assessment of suicidal cognition in adolescents.

Assessing Reliability: Critical Corrections for a Critical Examination of the Rorschach Comprehensive System.

Abstract: Wood, Nezworski, and Stejskal (1996a, 1996b) argued that the Rorschach Comprehensive System (CS) lacked many essential pieces of reliability data and that the available evidence indicated that scoring reliability may be little better than chance. Contrary to their assertions, the author suggests why rater agreement should focus on responses rather than summary scores, how field reliability moves away from testing CS scoring principles, and how no psychometric distinction exists between a percentage correct and a percentage agreement index. Also, after reviewing problematic qualities of kappa, a meta-analysis of published data is presented indicating that the CS has excellent chance-corrected interrater reliability (Estimated K, M = .86, range = .72-.96). Finally, the author notes that Wood et al. ignored at least 17 CS studies of test-retest reliability that contain many of the important data they said were missing. The author concluded that Wood et al.'s erroneous assertions about the more elementary topic of reliability make suspect their assertions about the more complex topic of validity.

Design of Individualized Behavioral Treatment Programs Using Functional Analytic Clinical Case Models

Abstract: The design of an individualized treatment program in behavior therapy is critical, complex, and strongly affected by pretreatment data obtained as part of a multimethod, multimodal assessment. The functional analysis is the integration of several elements for individualized treatment decision making: the relative importance, interrelationships, and sequelae of a client's behavior problems and treatment goals and the relative modifiability, interrelationships, and strength of causal variables. The functional analysis can be represented visually with the functional analytic clinical case model (FACCM), a vector-graphic representation of variables and functional relationships. This article describes and illustrates the methods, rationale, and characteristics of both the functional analysis and the FACCM, using a clinical case example. Research and restrictions on the treatment utility of the functional analysis are discussed. The design of an individualized behavioral treatment program involves important and complex clinical judgments. These judgments can affect the degree to which clients will experience a reduction in distress and an increase in quality of life. Individualized treatment programs can be difficult to design because they are often based on an integration of many separate clinical judgments, each of which is affected by multiple sources of data and subject to many sources of error and bias (see discussions in

Incremental efficacy of WISC–III factor scores in predicting achievement: What do they tell us?

Abstract: Four factors underlie the Full Scale IQ (FSIQ) on the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children-Third Edition (WISC-III; D. Wechsler, 1991). Scores from these factors possess greater reliability than individual subtest scores, and some argue that factor scores relate to important phenomena of educational and clinical interest, such as academic achievement and classification status. However, the predictive efficacy of factor scores from the WISC-III relative to the Full Scale IQ (FSIQ) has not been clearly established. This study examined the incremental validity of factor scores from the WISC-III in predicting achievement on the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (WIAT; Psychological Corporation, 1992). Two groups were evaluated: a nationally representative nonreferred sample (n = 283), and a sample of children referred for evaluation (n = 636). Results indicate that while the factors provide a statistically significant increment, the size of this improvement is generally too small to be of clinical significance for either group. In terms of parsimony and efficiency, the FSIQ is the best predictor of different achievement criteria as measured by the WIAT.

The Referential Thinking Scale as a Measure of Schizotypy: Scale Development and Initial Construct Validation

Abstract: This article describes the development of a measure of schizotypic referential thinking. The authors present a 34-item questionnaire that includes a wide variety of referential thoughts and experiences, including both simple and guilty ideas of reference. The Referential Thinking Scale (REF) displays adequate internal consistency and strong relations with other measures of Schizotypy, such as the well-known Perceptual Aberration and Magical Ideation Scales. Item-level factor analysis of the REF suggests that referential thought is multidimensio nal in nature, including both simple and guilty ideas of reference components. The REF displays minimal relations with acquiesencc, social desirability, and sex. The REF does not appear to assess normative personality constructs that involve heightened self-awareness such as self-monitoring, self-consciousness, or social desirability, nor does it appear to be unduly related to psychological state variables. The REF was developed in order to provide an additional Schizotypy measure for use in large-scale screening efforts and other schizotypy studies.

A Short Form of the WISC-III for Clinical Use.

Abstract: Using specific theoretical and practical criteria, 8 subtests were selected from the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition (WISC-III; D. Wechsler, 1991) to construct a short form that would allow computation of all 4 factor index scores. Linear scaling was used to compute deviation quotients of the short form, and confirmatory factor analysis was used to determine which of 6 hypothesized models could best explain intelligence as measured by this WISC-III short form. The results indicated that the short form had satisfactory reliability and validity and that a 4-factor model (composed of Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual Organization, Freedom From Distractibility, and Processing Speed) fit the data of this short form relatively best. Specific guidelines for use of this short form in clinical practice are provided.

Ethnicity and acculturation: Assessing Mexican American couples' relationships using the Marital Satisfaction Inventory—Revised.

Abstract: This study compared the marriages of 75 Mexican American and 66 non-Hispanic White American couples sampled from the same geographic region of the southwestern U.S., using the Marital Satisfaction Inventory-Revised (MST-R). Analyses of internal consistency and scales' intercorrelations provided partial support for the structural equivalence of MSI-R scales across both samples. Multivariate analyses indicated modestly higher levels of relationship distress among the Mexican American couples, although group differences dissolved after controlling for demographic variables other than ethnicity. Ratings of higher acculturation among Mexican American couples were modestly related to higher levels of marital distress for wives but unrelated to relationship satisfaction for husbands. Implications of findings for the study of Mexican American marriages and interventions with clinically distressed couples are discussed.

Head injury and the MMPI-2: Paradoxical severity effects and the influence of litigation.

Abstract: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) profiles of 30 consecutive patients with moderate/severe head injury were compared with those of 30 consecutive symptomatic minor/mild head injury patients. Of the severely injured, 18 had ongoing litigation and 12 did not. All 30 minor/mild patients were in litigation. The severe litigating group had significant elevations on Hypochondriasis (Hs), Hysteria (Hy), Schizophrenia (Sc), and Health Concerns relative to the severe nonlitigating group. The minor/mild group had significant elevations on Hs, Depression (D), Hy, and Psychasthenia (Pt) over both the litigating and nonlitigating severe groups and additional elevations on Sc and Health Concerns over the severe nonlitigating group. Results are discussed in terms of the influence of litigation and injury severity on symptom endorsement on the MMPI-2. A model explaining persisting claims of disability after minor/mild head injury is proposed.

Reliability and validity of the Addiction Severity Index among outpatients with severe mental illness

Abstract: This study provides psychometric data for the Addiction Severity Index (ASI) when administered to persons with severe and persistent mental disorders. Participants were 97 outpatients (26 women) at a public psychiatric facility. The internal consistency of the composite scores was lower in this psychiatric sample than in previous nonpsychiatric samples. Interrater reliability was acceptable for most composite scores but low for many severity ratings. Several scores showed low temporal stability. Validity evidence was weak for the employment and family-social subscales, acceptable for drug and alcohol subscales, and mixed for psychiatric, medical, and legal subscales. Due to mixed reliability and validity evidence, caution should be exercised when using the ASI with patients having severe mental illness.