Showing papers in "Psychological Assessment in 2013"

State Mindfulness Scale (SMS): development and initial validation.

Abstract: The goal of the present research was to develop and test a novel conceptual model and corresponding measure of state mindfulness-the State Mindfulness Scale (SMS). We developed the SMS to reflect traditional Buddhist and contemporary psychological science models of mindfulness not similarly reflected in extant published measures of the construct. Study 1 exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses supported a higher order 2-factor solution encompassing 1 second-order state mindfulness factor, and 2 first-order factors, one reflecting state mindfulness of bodily sensations and the other state mindfulness of mental events. Study 2 provided cross-sectional evidence of the convergent, discriminant, and incremental convergent validity of SMS scores with respect to other measures of state and trait mindfulness. Study 3, a randomized control experimental mindfulness intervention study, yielded a number of key findings with respect to SMS stability as a function of time and context, construct validity, incremental sensitivity to change in state mindfulness over time, and incremental predictive criterion-related validity. Findings are discussed with respect to the potential contribution of the SMS to the study of mindfulness as a statelike mental behavior, biopsychobehavioral research on the mechanisms of mindfulness, and clinical evaluation of mindfulness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).

Passion: Does one scale fit all? Construct validity of two-factor passion scale and psychometric invariance over different activities and languages.

Abstract: The passion scale, based on the dualistic model of passion, measures 2 distinct types of passion: Harmonious and obsessive passions are predictive of adaptive and less adaptive outcomes, respectively. In a substantive-methodological synergy, we evaluate the construct validity (factor structure, reliability, convergent and discriminant validity) of Passion Scale responses (N = 3,571). The exploratory structural equation model fit to the data was substantially better than the confirmatory factor analysis solution, and resulted in better differentiated (less correlated) factors. Results from a 13-model taxonomy of measurement invariance supported complete invariance (factor loadings, factor correlations, item uniquenesses, item intercepts, and latent means) over language (French vs. English; the instrument was originally devised in French, then translated into English) and gender. Strong measurement partial invariance over 5 passion activity groups (leisure, sport, social, work, education) indicates that the same set of items is appropriate for assessing passion across a wide variety of activities--a previously untested, implicit assumption that greatly enhances practical utility. Support was found for the convergent and discriminant validity of the harmonious and obsessive passion scales, based on a set of validity correlates: life satisfaction, rumination, conflict, time investment, activity liking and valuation, and perceiving the activity as a passion.

Development and Validation of the Eating Pathology Symptoms Inventory (EPSI)

Abstract: Many current measures of eating disorder (ED) symptoms have 1 or more serious limitations, such as inconsistent factor structures or poor discriminant validity. The goal of this study was to overcome these limitations through the development of a comprehensive multidimensional measure of eating pathology. An initial pool of 160 items was developed to assess 20 dimensions of eating pathology. The initial item pool was administered to a student sample (N = 433) and community sample (N = 407) to determine the preliminary structure of the measure using exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. The revised measure was administered to independent samples of patients recruited from specialty ED treatment centers (N = 158), outpatient psychiatric clinics (N = 303), and students (N = 227). Analyses revealed an 8-factor structure characterized by Body Dissatisfaction, Binge Eating, Cognitive Restraint, Excessive Exercise, Restricting, Purging, Muscle Building, and Negative Attitudes Toward Obesity. Scale scores showed excellent convergent and discriminant validity; other analyses demonstrated that the majority of scales were invariant across sex and weight categories. Eating Pathology Symptoms Inventory scale scores had excellent internal consistency (median coefficient alphas ranged from .84-.89) and reliability over a 2- to 4-week period (mean retest r = .73). The current study represents one of the most comprehensive scale development projects ever conducted in the field of EDs and will enhance future basic and treatment research focused on EDs.

A test of two brief measures of grandiose narcissism: the narcissistic personality inventory-13 and the narcissistic personality inventory-16.

Abstract: The most widely used measure of trait narcissism is the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI), which can provide both total and subscale scores. However, with a length of 40 items, this measure may not be ideal in settings in which time or participant attention may limit the types of measures that can be administered. In response, Ames, Rose, and Anderson (2006) created the NPI-16, which provides a shorter, unidimensional measure of the construct. In the present research, we examine the reliability and validity of the NPI-16 in conjunction with a new short measure of narcissism, the NPI-13, which provides both a total score and 3 subscale scores (Leadership/Authority; Grandiose Exhibitionism; Entitlement/Exploitativeness). Across 2 studies, we demonstrate that both short measures manifest good convergent and discriminant validity and adequate overall reliability. The NPI-13 may be favored over the NPI-16 because it allows for the extraction of 3 subscales, consistent with the use of its parent measure.

New tricks for an old measure: The development of the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale–Brief (BIS-Brief).

Abstract: The Barratt Impulsivity Scale (BIS), a 30-item self-report measure, is one of the most commonly used scales for the assessment of the personality construct of impulsiveness. It has recently marked 50 years of use in research and clinical settings. The current BIS-11 is held to measure 3 theoretical subtraits, namely, attentional, motor, and non-planning impulsiveness. We evaluated the factor structure of the BIS using full information item bifactor analysis for Likert-type items. We found no evidence supporting the 3-factor model. In fact, half of the items do not share any relation with other items and do not form any factor. In light of this, we introduce a unidimensional Barratt Impulsiveness Scale-Brief (BIS-Brief) that includes 8 of the original BIS-11 items. Next, we present evidence of construct validity comparing scores obtained with the BIS-Brief against the original BIS total scores using data from (a) a community sample of borderline personality patients and normal controls, (b) a forensic sample, and (c) an inpatient sample of young adults and adolescents. We demonstrated similar indices of construct validity that is observed for the BIS-11 total score with the BIS-Brief score. Use of the BIS-Brief in clinical assessment settings and large epidemiological studies of psychiatric disorders will reduce the burden on respondents without loss of information. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved). Language: en

The Basic Empathy Scale in adults (BES-A): factor structure of a revised form.

Abstract: Initially thought of as a unitary ability, empathy has been more recently considered to consist of 2 components (i.e., an affective and a cognitive component). The Basic Empathy Scale (BES) is a tool that has been used to assess empathy in young people and adolescents on the basis of this dual-component conception (Jolliffe & Farrington, 2006). Recent studies of empathy have led to it being defined as underpinned by 3 components, namely, emotional contagion, emotional disconnection, and cognitive empathy. The aims of this study were (a) to validate the BES in Adults and (b) to compare the different conceptions of empathy. Three hundred seventy French adults took part in the study, and 160 of them filled out complementary scales measuring empathy, alexithymia, and emotional consciousness. The confirmatory factor analyses showed that the 3-factor model was the model that was best able to account for the data. Complementary tools confirmed the relationships previously observed between empathy as assessed with the BES and other scales assessing emotional processes. The results of this study make it clear that empathy can be seen as process-dependent. This conception of empathy, which is based on 3 factors, is consistent with the current, more integrated view of empathy. The implications of this conception and the opportunity to use the 2 or 3 factors of the BES in adults are presented in the discussion.

The Barratt Impulsiveness Scale-11: reassessment of its structure in a community sample.

Abstract: Despite much debate regarding the structure and measurement of impulsivity, research on this topic continues to thrive. There are many self-report measures of impulsivity and constructs related to impulse-control; however, the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale Version 11 (BIS-11; Patton, Stanford, & Barratt, 1995) appears to be the gold-standard self-report instrument in this domain, and it has played a major role in research (see Ireland & Archer, 2008; Stanford et al., 2009). Numerous recent studies have used the BIS-11 to explore the social consequences and behavioral correlates of individual differences in impulsivity (Carlson, Johnson, & Jacobs, 2010; Kjome et al., 2010; Piero, 2010; Sweitzer, Allen, & Kaut, 2008) as well as the biological and genetic origins of impulsivity (Benko et al., 2010; Kaladjian, Jeanningros, Azorin, Anton, & Mazzola-Pomietto, 2010; Lee et al., 2009; Stoltenberg & Nag, 2010). Despite the extensive use of the BIS-11, psychometric research on its internal structure has been relatively scant, especially in large community samples. The primary goal of the present investigation, therefore, was to apply exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses to BIS-11 item response data collected in a community sample (N = 691). Our objective was to test specific, well-known theories of the BIS-11structure, which form the basis of the aggregate scale and subscale scores that are currently used in research (Patton et al., 1995; Stanford et al., 2009). Specifically, we used exploratory and confirmatory unidimensional and bifactor modeling to evaluate the degree to which the BIS-11 total score reflects a single common latent trait of impulsivity. We also used exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses to evaluate the theory that BIS-11 responses reflect six correlated first-order constructs (attention, motor, self-control, planfullness, cognitive complexity, perseverance, cognitive instability), which in turn, form three second-order factors (attention, motor, and non-planning). Prior to further description of these analyses, the next section reviews the development of the BIS-11.

Psychopathy and the combination of psychopathy and sexual deviance as predictors of sexual recidivism: meta-analytic findings using the Psychopathy Checklist--Revised.

Abstract: Clinicians routinely administer Hare's (2003) Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) to sex offenders and report PCL-R scores as meaningful predictors of recidivism risk. Although a 2005 meta-analysis reported a small (d = 0.29) association between PCL-R scores and sexual recidivism (Hanson & Morton-Bourgon, 2005), no meta-analysis has examined effects for PCL-R factors and facets, the widely cited combination of high PCL-R and high sexual deviance scores, or potential moderators of the PCL-R/recidivism relation. We conducted a meta-analysis of effects from all available studies examining the relation between PCL-R scores and sexual recidivism (k = 20, N = 5,239). The effect for PCL-R Total scores predicting sexual recidivism was d = 0.40, which falls beyond the upper end of the 2005 confidence interval [.20, .38]. Effects were stronger for Factor 2 (d = 0.44) and Facet 4 (d = 0.40) scores than other factor or facet scores (ds = 0.01 to 0.17). Effects tended to be stronger for scores calculated for research (d = 0.44) compared to those calculated for clinical use (d = 0.28). Offenders who scored high on both the PCL-R and a measure of sexual deviance were more likely to reoffend sexually than other offenders (odds ratio = 2.80 to 3.21, k = 6). Results indicate that PCL-R scores, particularly combined with a measure of sexual deviance, are potentially relevant to sex offender risk. But results also underscore several practical challenges to implementing these findings in routine clinical practice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved). Language: en

Performance of healthy participants on the Iowa Gambling Task.

Abstract: The Iowa Gambling Task (IGT; Bechara, Damasio, Damasio, & Anderson, 1994) is often used to assess decision-making deficits in clinical populations. The interpretation of the results hinges on 3 key assumptions: (a) healthy participants learn to prefer the good options over the bad options; (b) healthy participants show homogeneous choice behavior; and (c) healthy participants first explore the different options and then exploit the most profitable ones. Here we test these assumptions using 2 extensive literature reviews and analysis of 8 data sets. The results show that all 3 assumptions may be invalid; that is, (a) healthy participants often prefer decks with infrequent losses; (b) healthy participants show idiosyncratic choice behavior; and (c) healthy participants do not show a systematic decrease in the number of switches across trials. Our findings question the prevailing interpretation of IGT data and suggest that, in future applications of the IGT, key assumptions about performance of healthy participants warrant close scrutiny.

Measuring values and committed action with the Engaged Living Scale (ELS): Psychometric evaluation in a nonclinical sample and a chronic pain sample

Abstract: This article describes the development and evaluation of the Engaged Living Scale (ELS) as a new self-report, process-specific measure to assess an engaged response style as conceptualized in acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT). The psychometric properties of the ELS test scores were evaluated in both a nonclinical sample (N = 439) and a clinical sample consisting of chronic pain patients who participated in a study on the effects of an online ACT intervention (N = 238). Item analysis and exploratory factor analysis in the nonclinical sample suggested a 16-item version of the ELS with 2 subscales, Valued Living (10 items) and Life Fulfillment (6 items). A bifactor model with 2 specific factors and 1 general underlying factor showed the best fit in confirmatory factor analyses in the chronic pain sample. In both samples, the scores on the ELS and its subscales showed good internal consistency and construct validity by consistent patterns of relationships with theoretically related process and outcome variables, such as psychological well-being, anxiety/depression, acceptance, mindfulness, and pain interference in daily life. Furthermore, in the chronic pain sample, the ELS showed incremental validity in explaining anxiety and depression, positive mental health, and pain interference beyond both acceptance and mindfulness. This study suggests the ELS shows promise as a useful tool for the measurement of an engaged response style, enabling more comprehensive evaluation of working mechanisms of ACT.

On the factor structure of the Beck Depression Inventory-II: G is the key.

Abstract: The Beck Depression Inventory II (BDI-II; Beck, Steer, & Brown, 1996) is intended to measure severity of depression, and because items represent a broad range of depressive symptoms, some multidimensionality exists. In recent factor-analytic studies, there has been a debate about whether the BDI-II can be considered as one scale or whether subscales should be distinguished. In the present study, we applied a bifactor model to evaluate the extent to which scores reflect a single variable in a large sample of 1,530 clinical outpatients. We found that total scale score variation reflected some multidimensionality, but not enough to justify the scoring of subscales. We conclude that the BDI-II total scale score reflects a single construct and that reporting and interpreting subscale scores may result in misleading conclusions.

Optimizing efficiency of psychopathology assessment through quantitative modeling: development of a brief form of the Externalizing Spectrum Inventory.

Abstract: The Externalizing Spectrum Inventory (ESI; Krueger, Markon, Patrick, Benning, & Kramer, 2007) provides for integrated, hierarchical assessment of a broad range of problem behaviors and traits in the domain of deficient impulse control. The ESI assesses traits and problems in this domain through 23 lower order facet scales organized around 3 higher order dimensions, reflecting general disinhibition, callous aggression, and substance abuse. The full-form ESI contains 415 items, and a shorter form would be useful for questionnaire screening studies or multimethod research protocols. In the current work, we employed item response theory and structural modeling methods to create a 160-item brief form (ESI-BF) that provides for efficient measurement of the ESI's lower order facets and quantification of its higher order dimensions either as scale-based factors or as item-based composites. The ESI-BF is recommended for use in research on psychological or neurobiological correlates of problems such as risk-taking, delinquency, aggression, and substance abuse, and studies of general and specific mechanisms that give rise to problems of these kinds. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved). Language: en

Distinguishing primary and secondary variants of callous-unemotional traits among adolescents in a clinic-referred sample.

Abstract: The current study used model-based cluster analyses to determine if there are 2 distinct variants of adolescents (ages 11-18) high on callous-unemotional (CU) traits that differ on their level of anxiety and history of trauma. The sample (n = 272) consisted of clinic-referred youths who were primarily African American (90%) and who came from low-income families. Consistent with hypotheses, 3 clusters emerged, including a group low on CU traits, as well as 2 groups high on CU traits that differed in their level of anxiety and past trauma. Consistent with past research on incarcerated adults and adolescents, the group high on anxiety (i.e., secondary variant) was more likely to have histories of abuse and had higher levels of impulsivity, externalizing behaviors, aggression, and behavioral activation. In contrast, the group low on anxiety (i.e., primary variant) scored lower on a measure of behavioral inhibition. On measures of impulsivity and externalizing behavior, the higher scores for the secondary cluster were found only for self-report measures, not on parent-report measures. Youths in the primary cluster also were perceived as less credible reporters than youths in the secondary cluster (i.e., secondary variant) or cluster low on CU traits. These reporter and credibility differences suggest that adolescents within the primary variant may underreport their level of behavioral disturbance, which has important assessment implications.

A prescriptive intergenerational-tension ageism scale : Succession, identity, and consumption (SIC)

Abstract: We introduce a novel ageism scale, focusing on prescriptive beliefs concerning potential intergenerational tensions: active, envied resource succession, symbolic identity avoidance, and passive, sharedresource consumption (SIC). Four studies (2,010 total participants) were used to develop the scale. Exploratory factor analysis formed an initial 20-item, 3-factor solution (Study 1). The scale converges appropriately with other prejudice measures and diverges from other social control measures (Study 2). It diverges from antiyouth ageism (Study 3). The Study 4 experiment yielded both predictive and divergent validity apropos another ageism measure. Structural equation modeling confirmed model fit across all studies. Per an intergenerational-tension focus, younger people consistently scored the highest. As generational equity issues intensify, the scale provides a contemporary tool for current and future ageism research.

Validation of and revision to the VRAG and SORAG: The Violence Risk Appraisal Guide-Revised (VRAG-R)

Abstract: The violence risk appraisal guide (VRAG) was developed in the early 1990s, and approximately 60 replications around the world have shown its utility for the appraisal of violence risk among correctional and psychiatric populations. At the same time, authorities (e.g., Dawes, Faust, & Meehl, 1989) have argued that tools should be periodically evaluated to see if they need to be revised. In the present study, we evaluated the accuracy of the VRAG in a sample of 1,261 offenders, fewer than half of whom were participants in the development sample, then developed and validated a revised and easier-to-score instrument (the VRAG-R). We examined the accuracy of both instruments over fixed durations of opportunity ranging from 6 months to 49 years and examined outcome measures pertaining to the overall number, severity, and imminence of violent recidivism. Both instruments were found to predict dichotomous violent recidivism overall and at various fixed follow-ups with high levels of predictive accuracy (receiver operating characteristic areas of approximately .75) and to significantly predict other violent outcomes.

The Forms of Bullying Scale (FBS): validity and reliability estimates for a measure of bullying victimization and perpetration in adolescence.

Abstract: The study of bullying behavior and its consequences for young people depends on valid and reliable measurement of bullying victimization and perpetration. Although numerous self-report bullying-related measures have been developed, robust evidence of their psychometric properties is scant, and several limitations inhibit their applicability. The Forms of Bullying Scale (FBS), with versions to measure bullying victimization (FBS-V) and perpetration (FBS-P), was developed on the basis of existing instruments, for use with 12- to 15-year-old adolescents to economically, yet comprehensively measure both bullying perpetration and victimization. Measurement properties were estimated. Scale validity was tested using data from 2 independent studies of 3,496 Grade 8 and 783 Grade 8-10 students, respectively. Construct validity of scores on the FBS was shown in confirmatory factor analysis. The factor structure was not invariant across gender. Strong associations between the FBS-V and FBS-P and separate single-item bullying items demonstrated adequate concurrent validity. Correlations, in directions as expected with social-emotional outcomes (i.e., depression, anxiety, conduct problems, and peer support), provided robust evidence of convergent and discriminant validity. Responses to the FBS items were found to be valid and concurrently reliable measures of self-reported frequency of bullying victimization and perpetration, as well as being useful to measure involvement in the different forms of bullying behaviors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).

The criterion-related validity of personality measures for predicting GPA: A meta-analytic validity competition.

Abstract: Interest in the role of personality traits in predicting academic performance outcomes has steadily increased over the last several decades, enough to produce a number of meta-analyses that summarize this research (e.g., Poropat, 2009; Richardson, Abraham, & Bond, 2012). These previous meta-analyses combine a variety of alternative personality measures under the assumption that they all reflect the same personality traits and thus predict outcomes similarly. The current meta-analysis tests this assumption by comparing different personality measures when predicting postsecondary grade point average (GPA). The operational validities (r+) of 5 frequently used measures of the Big Five personality traits were compared: the NEO Personality Inventory--Revised (NEO-PI-R; Costa & McCrae, 1992), the NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI; Costa & McCrae, 1992), the Big Five Inventory (BFI; e.g., Benet-Martinez & John, 1998), Goldberg's (1992) unipolar Big Five Factor Markers (Markers), and the Big Five International Personality Item Pool (IPIP; Goldberg, 1999). A systematic review of the psychological literature from 1992 to 2012 was conducted, identifying 51 studies containing 274 correlations. Conscientiousness demonstrated the strongest criterion-related validity for predicting GPA (r+ = .23), consistent with previous meta-analyses; in addition, this overall validity was found to be robust across measures (r(BFI)(+) = .24, r(IPIP)(+) = .21, r(Markers)(+) = .15, r(NEO-FFI)(+) = .24, r(NEO-PI-R)(+) = .26). Although the criterion-related validities for Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism, and Openness to Experience (Intellect) differed by measure, they were generally low (r+s < .10). Practical implications of the findings and directions for future research are discussed.

Assessing Clinical Significance of Treatment Outcomes Using the DASS-21

Abstract: Standard clinical significance classifications are based on movement between the "dysfunctional" and "functional" distributions; however, this dichotomy ignores heterogeneity within the "dysfunctional" population. Based on the methodology described by Tingey, Lambert, Burlingame, and Hansen (1996), the present study sought to present a 3-distribution clinical significance model for the 21-item version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21; P. F. Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995) using data from a normative sample (n = 2,914), an outpatient sample (n = 1,000), and an inpatient sample (n = 3,964). DASS-21 scores were collected at pre- and post-treatment for both clinical samples, and patients were classified into 1 of 5 categories based on whether they had made a reliable change and whether they had moved into a different functional range. Evidence supported the validity of the 3-distribution model for the DASS-21, since inpatients who were classified as making a clinically significant change showed lower symptom severity, higher perceived quality of life, and higher clinician-rated functioning than those who did not make a clinically significant change. Importantly, results suggest that the new category of recovering is an intermediate point between recovered and making no clinically significant change. Inpatients and outpatients have different treatment goals and therefore use of the concept of clinical significance needs to acknowledge differences in what constitutes a meaningful change.

Development and validation of the revised Identity Style Inventory (ISI-5): factor structure, reliability, and validity

Abstract: Identity processing style refers to differences in how individuals process identity-relevant information as they engage or manage to avoid the challenges of constructing, maintaining, and/or reconstructing a sense of identity. The third version of the Identity Style Inventory (Berzonsky, 1992b) has been used to operationally define identity styles in most empirical investigations. The objective of the present series of studies was the development and validation of a new revised measure of identity processing style: Identity Style Inventory-Version 5 (ISI-5). Initially a pool of 39 generic items was generated that highlighted the processing of identity-relevant information on content-neutral issues such as personal values, goals, problems, and the like. Three style scales were identified by Exploratory Factor Analysis: A 9-item Informational-style scale; a 9-item Normative-style scale; and a 9-item Diffuse-avoidant style scale. Confirmatory factor analysis on an independent sample indicated that this 3-factor solution provided the best fit. Results from 5 studies provided evidence for the psychometric properties of the scales. Scores on the 3 style scales demonstrated good test-retest reliability and internal consistency. Theoretically predicted correlations between the ISI-5 scale scores and performance on measures of identity status, content, and commitment, and measures of rational and automatic processing provided evidence for their convergent and discriminant validity. It is concluded that the scales should be useful for researchers interested in investigating individual differences in identity processing style. Limitations and directions for future research are considered.

The value of suppressor effects in explicating the construct validity of symptom measures.

Abstract: Suppressor effects are operating when the addition of a predictor increases the predictive power of another variable. We argue that suppressor effects can play a valuable role in explicating the construct validity of symptom measures by bringing into clearer focus opposing elements that are inherent--but largely hidden--in the measure's overall score. We illustrate this point using theoretically grounded, replicated suppressor effects that have emerged in analyses of the original Inventory of Depression and Anxiety Symptoms (IDAS; Watson et al., 2007) and its expanded 2nd version (IDAS-II; Watson et al., 2012). In Study 1, we demonstrate that the IDAS-II Appetite Gain and Appetite Loss scales contain both (a) a shared distress component that creates a positive correlation between them and (b) a specific symptom component that produces a natural negative association between them (i.e., people who recently have experienced decreased interest in food/loss of appetite are less likely to report a concomitant increase in appetite/weight). In Study 2, we establish that mania scales also contain 2 distinct elements-namely, high energy/positive emotionality and general distress/dysfunction-that oppose each another in many instances. In both studies, we obtained evidence of suppression effects that were highly robust across different types of respondents (e.g., clinical outpatients, community adults, college students) and using both self-report and interview-based measures. These replicable suppressor effects establish that many homogeneous, unidimensional symptom scales actually contain distinguishable components with distinct--at times, even antagonistic--properties.

Internal structure of the Reflective Functioning Scale.

Abstract: The Reflective Functioning Scale (RFS) was developed to assess individual differences in the ability to mentalize attachment relationships. The RFS assesses mentalization from transcripts of the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI). A global score is given by trained coders on an 11-point scale ranging from antireflective to exceptionally reflective. Coding procedures rely on a distinction of demand and permit questions during the AAI. Demand questions directly probe for reflective functioning (RF), whereas permit questions do not. Coding focuses on detecting qualitative markers of RF and qualitative markers of absent RF, respectively. Despite its relevant empirical contributions in clinical research, several psychometric properties of the RFS are still unclear. In this article, we present data on the reliability and internal structure of the RFS based on a combined sample of 196 subjects. We were able to show that (a) the global score can be assessed with good interrater reliability, is relatively stable across time, and is significantly reduced in persons with mental disorders; (b) demand questions are based on a single latent factor; (c) demand questions do not differ in terms of difficulty; (d) all demand questions but 1 are incrementally predictive of the global score; (e) 5 permit questions contribute to the global score over and above demand questions; and (f) the number of qualitative markers of RF is also predictive of the global score. Our results have important conceptual and methodological implications for future studies using the RFS.

Validation of the ostracism experience scale for adolescents.

Abstract: This study validates a new self-report measure, the Ostracism Experience Scale for Adolescents (OES-A). Nineteen items were tested on a sample of 876 high school seniors to assess 2 of the most common ostracism experiences: being actively excluded from the peer group and being largely ignored by others. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, bivariate correlations, and hierarchical regression provided support for the construct validity of the measure. The findings provided psychometric support for the OES-A, which could be used in research into the nature and correlates of social ostracism among older adolescents when a brief self-report measure is needed. Further, the OES-A may help determine how social ostracism subtypes differentially predict health-compromising behaviors later in development, as well as factors that protect against the most pernicious effects of ostracism.

Factor structure of the B-Scan 360: A measure of corporate psychopathy

Abstract: Psychopathy is a clinical construct defined by a cluster of personality traits and behaviors, including grandiosity, egocentricity, deceptiveness, shallow emotions, lack of empathy or remorse, irresponsibility, impulsivity, and a tendency to ignore or violate social norms. The majority of empirical research on psychopathy involves forensic populations most commonly assessed with the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R), a 20-item rating scale that measures 4 related factors or dimensions (Interpersonal, Affective, Lifestyle, and Antisocial) that underpin the superordinate construct of psychopathy. Recently, researchers have turned their attention to the nature and implications of psychopathic features in the workplace. This research has been hampered by the lack of an assessment tool geared to the corporate/organizational world. Here we describe the B-Scan 360, an instrument that uses ratings of others to measure psychopathic features in workplace settings. In this study, large samples of participants used an online survey system to rate their supervisors on the B-Scan 360. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses supported a reliable 20-item, 4-factor model that is consistent with the PCL-R 4-factor model of psychopathy. Although more research is needed before the B-Scan 360 can be used in organizational settings, we believe that these results represent an important step forward in the study of corporate psychopathy.

The Child PTSD Symptom Scale: an update and replication of its psychometric properties.

Abstract: The psychometric properties of the child PTSD Symptom Scale (CPSS) were examined in 2 samples. Sample 1 (N = 185, ages 6-17 years) consisted of children recruited from hospitals after accidental injury, assault, and road traffic trauma, and assessed 6 months posttrauma. Sample 2 (N = 68, ages 6-17 years) comprised treatment-seeking children who had experienced diverse traumas. In both samples psychometric properties were generally good to very good (internal reliability for total CPSS scores = .83 and .90, respectively). The point-biserial correlation of the CPSS with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) diagnosis derived from structured clinical interview was .51, and children diagnosed with PTSD reported significantly higher symptoms than non-PTSD children. The CPSS demonstrated applicability to be used as a diagnostic measure, demonstrating sensitivity of 84% and specificity of 72%. The performance of the CPSS Symptom Severity Scale to accurately identify PTSD at varying cutoffs is reported in both samples, with a score of 16 or above suggested as a revised cutoff.

The psychometric properties of the Inventory of Callous-Unemotional Traits in an undergraduate sample.

Abstract: In the present study, the psychometric properties and factor structure of the 24-item Inventory of Callous-Unemotional Traits (ICU) were tested in a sample of 687 college students. Results support a similar 3-factor structure to that identified in samples of youths, in whom this measure was previously validated. Correlations with external variables support the convergent and discriminant validity of the ICU total score and Uncaring and Callousness factor scores. The ICU was moderately to strongly correlated with the total score and the Coldheartedness and Self-Centered Impulsivity factors of the Psychopathic Personality Inventory-Revised, and the total score of Levenson's Self-Report Psychopathy Scale, and also predicted incremental variance in several external variables beyond these existing self-report psychopathy measures. Together, these findings suggest that with a few modifications, the ICU may hold promise as a brief self-report measure for assessing traits reflecting callousness and "meanness" in adults. High scores identified college students who tended to show antisocial tendencies consistent with diagnostic criteria for antisocial personality disorder, while also exhibiting low levels of empathy. Recommendations for future research with the ICU are discussed.

The impact of acquiescence on the evaluation of personality structure.

Abstract: Acquiescence, or the tendency to respond to descriptions of conceptually distinct personality attributes with agreement/affirmation (acceptance acquiescence) or disagreement/opposition (counter-acquiescence), has been widely recognized as a source of bias that can substantially alter interitem correlations within scales. Acquiescence is also known to operate differently among some groups of persons; it is, for example, more pronounced among individuals with less formal education. Consequently, the biasing effects of acquiescence are of particular concern when the dimensionality underlying the item set of a measure is examined with representative samples comprised of persons with varying levels of educational attainment and evaluated with correlation-based statistical methods such as factor analysis. In the present study, we extended our earlier research by investigating the biasing effect of acquiescence on personality factor structures derived from the full-scale version of the Big Five Inventory (BFI) when administered to a large sample (N = 1,427) selected to be representative of Germany's adult population. Consistent with previous findings based on a short-scale version of the BFI, factor analyses of the unadjusted BFI item set failed to replicate the expected Big Five-factor structure in the low/medium and high educational groups, with distortions in factor structure more pronounced in the former group. Once acquiescence was controlled in the item responses for both groups, however, the obtained factor structures were consistent with the Big Five framework. The implications of acquiescence on the evaluation of the factor structure of personality inventories and for the validity of personality assessments are discussed.

Is pedophilic sexual preference continuous? A taxometric analysis based on direct and indirect measures.

Abstract: The present study addressed the question of whether deviant sexual preferences for children can be considered a taxon, utilizing data from a multimethod assessment battery. The test battery comprised direct self-report as well as indirect latency-based measures (Implicit Association Tests, viewing time) of deviant sexual preferences for children. In a mixed sample of adult men (N = 304, including sex offenders against children, sex offenders against adults, and controls who were either nonsexual offenders or nonoffenders), 27% of the offenders convicted for child sexual abuse or child pornography charges were identified as a homogeneous and distinct latent class. Additional taxometric analyses corroborated the notion of a pedophilic subgroup. Individuals in this pedophilic group showed elevated scores on measures of deviant sexual preference for children over adults. The offense histories of the individuals from the pedophilic cluster indicated an increased likelihood of pedophilic preference as assessed by a file-based summary index. We interpret the results as evidence for pedophilic sexual preference as a distinct and taxonic clinical construct.

On what ground do we mentalize? Characteristics of current tasks and sources of information that contribute to mentalizing judgments.

Abstract: Mentalizing is an aspect of social cognition that is garnering increased interest. Although a wide variety of experimental tasks are available to measure mentalizing abilities in adults, the most widely used tasks typically focus on specific aspects of mentalizing, and mentalizing judgments are performed based on a limited set of information about the agent and the context. Here, we present the Eight Sources of Information Framework (8-SIF), a model that describes the sources of information that can contribute to mentalizing judgments both in real life and in the context of mentalizing tasks. This model is then used to systematically review and analyze the most classical mentalizing tasks, with a particular focus on the sources of information provided as a basis for mentalizing judgments in these tasks. Next, mentalizing tasks with improved ecological validity are also examined, highlighting the greater richness and diversity of the sources of information provided in such tasks relative to the most classical tasks. We believe that the 8-SIF is an important first step to increase awareness of the sources of information that can contribute to mentalizing judgments and to favor investigations of the potential impact of these sources of information on mentalizing performance in different populations.

Further insights on the French WISC-IV factor structure through Bayesian structural equation modeling.

Abstract: The interpretation of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Fourth Edition (WISC–IV) is based on a 4-factor model, which is only partially compatible with the mainstream Cattell–Horn–Carroll (CHC) model of intelligence measurement. The structure of cognitive batteries is frequently analyzed via exploratory factor analysis and/or confirmatory factor analysis. With classical confirmatory factor analysis, almost all crossloadings between latent variables and measures are fixed to zero in order to allow the model to be identified. However, inappropriate zero cross-loadings can contribute to poor model fit, distorted factors, and biased factor correlations; most important, they do not necessarily faithfully reflect theory. To deal with these methodological and theoretical limitations, we used a new statistical approach, Bayesian structural equation modeling (BSEM), among a sample of 249 French-speaking Swiss children (8–12 years). With BSEM, zero-fixed cross-loadings between latent variables and measures are replaced by approximate zeros, based on informative, small-variance priors. Results indicated that a direct hierarchical CHC-based model with 5 factors plus a general intelligence factor better represented the structure of the WISC–IV than did the 4-factor structure and the higher order models. Because a direct hierarchical CHC model was more adequate, it was concluded that the general factor should be considered as a breadth rather than a superordinate factor. Because it was possible for us to estimate the influence of each of the latent variables on the 15 subtest scores, BSEM allowed improvement of the understanding of the structure of intelligence tests and the clinical interpretation of the subtest scores.

Assessment of self-harm risk using implicit thoughts.

Abstract: Assessing for the risk of self-harm in acute care is a difficult task, and more information on pertinent risk factors is needed to inform clinical practice. This study examined the relationship of 6 forms of implicit cognition about death, suicide, and self-harm with the occurrence of self-harm in the future. We then attempted to develop a model using these measures of implicit cognition along with other psychometric tests and clinical risk factors. We conducted a prospective cohort of 107 patients (age > 17 years) with a baseline assessment that included 6 implicit association tests that assessed thoughts of death, suicide, and self-harm. Psychometric questionnaires were also completed by the patients, and these included the Beck Hopelessness Scale (Beck, Weissman, Lester, & Trexler, 1974), Barratt impulsiveness scale (Patton, Stanford, & Barratt, 1995), brief symptom inventory (Derogatis & Melisaratos, 1983), CAGE questionnaire for alcoholism (Ewing, 1984), and the drug abuse screening test 10 (Skinner, 1982). Medical and demographic information was also obtained for patients as potential confounders or useful covariables. The outcome measure was the occurrence of self-harm within 3 months. Implicit associations with death versus life as a predictor added significantly (odds ratio = 5.1, 95% confidence interval [1.3, 20.3]) to a multivariable model. The model had 96.6% sensitivity and 53.9% specificity with a high cutoff, or 58.6% sensitivity and 96.2% specificity with a low cutoff. This scale shows promise for screening emergency department patients with mental health presentations who may be at risk for future self-harm or suicide.