Showing papers in "Psychological Bulletin in 1985"

Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis.

Abstract: Examines whether the positive association between social support and well-being is attributable more to an overall beneficial effect of support (main- or direct-effect model) or to a process of support protecting persons from potentially adverse effects of stressful events (buffering model). The review of studies is organized according to (1) whether a measure assesses support structure (the existence of relationships) or function (the extent to which one's interpersonal relationships provide particular resources) and (2) the degree of specificity (vs globality) of the scale. Special attention is given to methodological characteristics that are requisite for a fair comparison of the models. It is concluded that there is evidence consistent with both models. Evidence for the buffering model is found when the social support measure assesses the perceived availability of interpersonal resources that are responsive to the needs elicited by stressful events. Evidence for a main effect model is found when the support measure assesses a person's degree of integration in a large social network. Both conceptualizations of social support are correct in some respects, but each represents a different process through which social support may affect well-being. Implications for theories of social support processes and for the design of preventive interventions are discussed.

Toward a consensual structure of mood.

Abstract: Reanalyses of a number of studies of self-reported mood indicate that Positive and Negative Affect consistently emerge as the first two Varimax rotated dimensions in orthogonal factor analyses or as the first two second-order factors derived from oblique solutions. The two factors emerged with varyi

Job satisfaction and job performance: A meta-analysis.

Abstract: Etude meta-analytique faisant le point sur la question des relations entre la satisfaction vis-a-vis du travail et la performance professionnelle

MANOVA method for analyzing repeated measures designs: an extensive primer

Abstract: Presentation de la methode d'analyse de variance multivariee (MANOVA) appliquee a l'analyse de mesures repetees, destinee a des chercheurs deja familiarises avec les methodes de l'analyse de variance ordinaire (ANOVA)

A Variance Explanation Paradox: When a Little is a Lot

Abstract: Concerning a single major league at bat, the percentage of variance in batting performance attributable to skill differentials among major league baseball players can be calculated statistically. The statistically appropriate calculation is seriously discrepant with intuitions about the influence of skill in batting performance. This paradoxical discrepancy is discussed in terms of habits of thought about the concept of variance explanation. It is argued that percent variance explanation is a misleading index of the influence of systematic factors in cases where there are processes by which individually tiny influences cumulate to produce meaningful outcomes. It is generally accepted that percentage of variance explained is a good measure of the importance of potential explanatory factors. Correlation coefficients of .30 or less are often poor-mouthed as accounting for less than 10% of the variance, a rather feeble performance for the influence of a putatively systematic factor. In analysis of variance contexts, the percentage of variance explanation is embodied in the omega-squared ratio of the systematic variance component to the total of the systematic and chance variance components. It, too, is often small; when it is, this is a source of discouragement for the thoughtful investigator.

Chronic Pain and Depression: Does the Evidence Support a Relationship?.

Abstract: Cette revue critique de la recherche montre l'existence d'une association entre la depression et la douleur chronique. Les modeles biologiques et psychologiques expliquant les mecanismes de cette interaction sont resumes

Alternative opportunities and withdrawal decisions: Empirical and theoretical discrepancies and an integration.

Abstract: Trois explications sont proposees pour rendre compte du desaccord existant entre les explications de type macroeconomique ou individuel de l'acte de quitter une entreprise

Cross-cultural universality of social-moral development: A critical review of Kohlbergian research.

Abstract: John R. Snarey Laboratory of Human Development Harvard University Over the past 15 years, children and adults around the world have been asked if Heinz should steal a drug to save his dying wife, if Njoroge should disobey the rules to help a lost child, or some other similar moral dilemma. These cross- cultural studies have been undertaken to test Lawrence Kohlberg's theory, which posits a universal model of moral development. This review identifies the major empirical assumptions underlying Kohlberg's claim for cross-cultural universality, including culturally diverse samplings, universal moral questions, invariant stage sequence, full range of stages, and general applicability of the stages. It then reviews the cross-cultural research literature, much of which has not been previously published, and evaluates the support for each assumption. In addition to providing striking support for the underlying assumptions, the 45 studies examined here also identify some major caveats regarding the range and general applicability of the stages across cultures. In particular, biases in favor of complex urban societies and middle-class populations are identified. Based on these findings, the conclusion presents an alternative to Kohlberg's perspective on the relation between culture and moral development. Lawrence Kohlberg's stage model of moral development, briefly summarized in Table 1, has attracted a great deal of positive attention from psychologists and educators. Not sur- prisingly, however, his work has also inspired considerable criticism and revisionism (cf. Gibbs, 1977; Gilligan, 1982; Kurtines & Grief, 1974; Rest, 1983). The aspect of Kohl- berg's theory that has been most difficult for many social scientists to accept is the claim that the development of moral reasoning about the social environment follows a uni- versal invariant sequence, toward the same universal ethical principles, in all cultural settings (cf. Bloom, 1977; Buck-Morss, 1975; Edwards, 1975, 1982; Guidon, 1978; Shweder, Preparation of this review was supported in part by National Institute of Mental Health Grant MH14088. I gratefully thank Agusto Blasi, John Broughton, John Gibbs, Lawrence Kohlberg, Stuart Hauser, Betty J. House, Harry Lasker, Robert LeVine, Joseph Reimer, Richard Shweder, and Carol Snarey for their helpful comments on a preliminary draft of this article. Special thanks to Carolyn Edwards for her extensive and careful comments. Requests for reprints should be sent to John Snarey, Laboratory of Human Development, Harvard University, Larsen Hall 300, Appian Way, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138. 1982a, 1982b; Simpson, 1974; Sullivan, 1977). This article identifies the primary em- pirical assumptions underlying Kohlberg's claim of cross-cultural universality and clar- ifies the appropriate evidence necessary to judge the claim. It then presents a compre- hensive examination of the available empirical evidence that has accumulated over the last 15 years and evaluates the support or lack of support indicated. The assumptions are dis- cussed in evaluative order, from those that receive the most support to those that receive the least support. Assumptions and Hypotheses Kohlberg (1971) stated his claim for the cross-cultural universality of moral develop- ment as follows: "All individuals in all cul- tures use the same thirty basic moral cate- gories, concepts, or principles, and all indi- viduals in all cultures go through the same order or sequence of gross stage development, though they vary in rate and terminal point of development" (1971, p. 175). I believe that Kohlberg's claim implies at least five empir- ical assumptions, each of which may be un- derstood as a testable hypothesis. The first assumption is that moral devel- 202

Field studies of French and Raven's bases of power: Critique, reanalysis, and suggestions for future research.

Abstract: Among the most widely used conceptualizations of social power is the five-fold typology developed by French and Raven in 1959, and numerous field studies have used this conceptualization over the past few decades. Unfortunately, however, a majority of them suffer from severe methodological shortcomings that make their interpretation problematic at best. In this article, we discuss these problems and present a reanalysis of the literature, which strongly suggests that at least some of our knowledge about the five bases of power is methodologica lly suspect. Following this, we also present and discuss suggestions for improving future research in this domain. Social power and influence processes have occupied a central place in psychological theories over the past few decades, perhaps most notably in the areas of industrial/ organizational and social psychology. Undoubtedly, among the most popular and widely accepted conceptualizations of social power is the five-fold typology developed by French and Raven in 1959. In fact, despite recent criticisms that have been advanced against this conceptualization (e.g., Kipnis & Schmidt, 1983; Kipnis, Schmidt, & Wilkinson, 1980), the French and Raven typology is widely used. For example, a survey of the authors' bookshelves disclosed that it was included in every survey textbook in the areas of organizationa l behavior and social psychology! An examination of the research literature also discloses that numerous studies have used French and Raven's typology. However, only field studies seem to have used explicit and complete operationalizations of the French and Raven framework. Although experimental studies often mention the French and Raven power bases, such studies either investigate only a subset of the five power

Correlation and the coefficient of determination.

Abstract: Presentation d'une interpretation du coefficient de correlation dans laquelle la valeur absolue de la correlation et non son carre fournit un coefficient de determination et discussion des conditions appropriees de son emploi

Rheumatoid arthritis: Review of psychological factors related to etiology, effects, and treatment.

Abstract: Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic disease with no known cause or cure that typically follows an unpredictable course. The present article provides a comprehensive review of the psychological literature related to etiology, effects, and treatment of RA. A brief summary of the relevant medical as

The time-order error and its relatives: Mirrors of cognitive processes in comparing.

Abstract: A number of studies on the time-order error (TOE) and related perceptual and judgmental phenomena are reviewed. It is concluded that the TOE should be classified as a perceptual phenomenon that can be understood and predicted with adaptation-level theory and the notion of sensation weighting. It is also concluded that sensation weighting underlies assimilation and contrast phenomena and that it is a manifestation of a general cognitive principle: the utilization of generic information to supplement specific stimulus information.

"Same"–"different" judgments: A review of current controversies in perceptual comparisons.

Abstract: A commonly used experimental paradigm for studying human information processing asks subjects to classify two stimuli with respect to their similarities and differences. The "same"-"different" judgment task, in particular, has useful applications in a variety of studies. The interpretation of "same"-"diiferent" reaction time data, however, is complicated by the existence of two seemingly anomalous effects, the fast-"same" effect and the criterion effect. This article examines explanations of these effects and brings evidence from the literature to bear on them. Current models of "same"-"different" judgments, two of which are widely accepted, can be rejected on the evidence of data reviewed here. Among the disconfirming data are several results that offer suggestions both for improving current models and for questioning some of their fundamental presuppositions. Sameness and difference are fundamental cognitive relations that enter, at least implicitly, into most forms of adaptive perceptual behavior. Accordingly, experimental tasks requiring subjects to discriminate sameness and difference among stimulus patterns have become standard investigative tools in a number of areas of psychological research, areas ranging from basic psychophysics and stimulus coding to concept learning and language processing. The time taken to make a "same"-"different" judgment has been a particularly useful measurement because reaction times (RTs) can often be used to isolate mental processes underlying phenomena of interest (Sternberg, 1969).' Aside from its methodological use as an adaptable and sensitive probe of extrinsic phenomena, the "same"-"different" judgment task has itself been the subject of considerable study over the past 15 years. The resulting body of empirical evidence has produced substantial agreement on the functional significance of information-processing operations that subserve perceptual comparisons. However, a debate, contentious at times and still unresolved, has surrounded "same"-"different" judgment

Theories relating mental imagery to perception

Abstract: This article reviews contemporary theories of relations between mental imagery and perception. Three types of theories are considered. Structural theories propose that mental images exhibit the same spatial and pictorial properties as real physical objects. Functional theories propose that the forma

Does professional training make a therapist more effective

Abstract: Jeffrey S. Berman and Nicholas C. NortonUniversity of Texas at AustinIn a recent review, Hattie, Sharpley, and Rogers (1984) concluded that patientstreated by paraprofessional therapists improve more than those treated by profes-sionals. However, this provocative conclusion is based on inappropriate studies andstatistical analyses. The present review omitted problematic studies and organizedthe data to permit valid statistical inference. Unlike Hattie et al., we found thatprofessional and paraprofessional therapists were generally equal in effectiveness.Our analyses also suggested that professionals may be better for brief treatmentsand older patients, although these differences were slight. Current research evidencedoes not indicate that paraprofessionals are more effective, but neither does it revealany substantial superiority for the professionally trained therapist.In his 1952 critique Eysenck noted the lackof evidenc e for the efficacy of psychotherapy,and he concluded that it would be prematureto formulate guidelines for training psycho-therapists. During the intervening years, re-searchers have responded to Eysenck's chal-lenge by demonstrating convincingly that pa-tients who undergo psychotherapy improvemore than those who do not receive treatment(e.g., see Shapiro & Shapiro, 1982; Smith,Glass, & Miller, 1980). However, such evidenceconcerning the efficacy of psychotherapy doesnot necessarily indicate the usefulness ofprofessional training programs. For instance,psychotherapy with highly trained therapistsmight not result in outcomes that are any bet-ter than those obtained by untrained thera-pists. To gauge the benefits of professionaltraining, we also need to know whether trainedtherapists are more effective than those withoutsuch training.One prominent assessment of this issue wasprovided by Durlak (1979), who reviewedstudies comparing professional therapists withparaprofessionals having no formal training.

Adolescent contraceptive behavior: A review.

Abstract: This review examines the psychologically oriented literature on adolescent contraceptive use. Descriptive studies individual difference studies and theory-based studies from family planning medical and applied journals are covered as well as studies appearing in psychology journals. The findings indicate that many teenagers are startlingly uninformed about basic reproductive physiology. A sizeable proportion of adolescents surveyed believed themselves to be immune to pregnancy or at least very unlikely to become pregnant even though they are unaware of the theoretical probability of pregnancy. 2nd birth control pills are popular with adolescents but condoms remain the only effective method of contraception used with any frequency at 1st intercourse. 3rd adolescents do not like to use contraceptives although it is unclear why. 4th personality variables specifically locus of control and self-esteem are correlated with contraceptive use but their effects are small and situationally limited. 5th contraceptive use increases with chronological age and frequency of intercourse although it is unclear whether these are direct or indirect relations. 6th adolescents nonuse of contraception is not irrational given their level of information beliefs and attitudes. Reasons for not using contraception include underestimating the possibility of pregnancy not having access to contraceptives and not anticipating the need for contraceptives. Moreover these beliefs and attitudes are powerful predictors of contraceptive behavior. A few problems with contraceptive use research include the lack of a standard classification system for birth control methods and vague descriptions of samples. Psychological methods using cognitive emotional and developmental factors have been used to predict and explain these behaviors and they hold promise for future research.