Showing papers in "Psychological Bulletin in 1988"

Structural equation modeling in practice: a review and recommended two-step approach

Abstract: In this article, we provide guidance for substantive researchers on the use of structural equation modeling in practice for theory testing and development. We present a comprehensive, two-step modeling approach that employs a series of nested models and sequential chi-square difference tests. We discuss the comparative advantages of this approach over a one-step approach. Considerations in specification, assessment of fit, and respecification of measurement models using confirmatory factor analysis are reviewed. As background to the two-step approach, the distinction between exploratory and confirmatory analysis, the distinction between complementary approaches for theory testing versus predictive application, and some developments in estimation methods also are discussed.

Illusion and well-being: a social psychological perspective on mental health

Abstract: Many prominent theorists have argued that accurate perceptions of the self, the world, and the future are essential for mental health. Yet considerable research evidence suggests that overly positive selfevaluations, exaggerated perceptions of control or mastery, and unrealistic optimism are characteristic of normal human thought. Moreover, these illusions appear to promote other criteria of mental health, including the ability to care about others, the ability to be happy or contented, and the ability to engage in productive and creative work. These strategies may succeed, in large part, because both the social world and cognitive-processing mechanisms impose niters on incoming information that distort it in a positive direction; negative information may be isolated and represented in as unthreatening a manner as possible. These positive illusions may be especially useful when an individual receives negative feedback or is otherwise threatened and may be especially adaptive under these circumstances. Decades of psychological wisdom have established contact with reality as a hallmark of mental health. In this view, the well-adjusted person is thought to engage in accurate reality testing, whereas the individual whose vision is clouded by illusion is regarded as vulnerable to, if not already a victim of, mental illness. Despite its plausibility, this viewpoint is increasingly difficult to maintain (cf. Lazarus, 1983). A substantial amount of research testifies to the prevalence of illusion in normal human cognition (see Fiske& Taylor, 1984;Greenwald, 1980; Nisbett & Ross, 1980; Sackeim, 1983; Taylor, 1983). Moreover, these illusions often involve central aspects of the self and the environment and, therefore, cannot be dismissed as inconsequential. In this article, we review research suggesting that certain illusions may be adaptive for mental health and well-being. In particular, we examine evidence that a set of interrelated positive illusions—namely, unrealistically positive self-evaluations, exaggerated perceptions of control or mastery, and unrealistic optimism—can serve a wide variety of cognitive, affective, and social functions. We also attempt to resolve the following para

Goodness-of-fit indexes in confirmatory factor analysis : The effect of sample size

Abstract: This investigation examined the influence of sample size on different goodness-of-fit indices used in confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The first two data sets were derived from large normative samples of responses to a multidimensional self-concept instrument and to a multidimensional instrument used to assess students' evaluations of teaching effectiveness. In the third set, data were simulated and generated according to the model to be tested. In the fourth, data were simulated and generated according to a three-factor model that did not have a simple structure. Twelve fit indicators were used to assess goodness-offit in all CFAs. All analyses were conducted with the LISREL V package. One-way ANOVAs and a visual inspection of graphs were used to assess the sample size effect on each index for the four data sets. Despite the inconsistency of the findings with previous claims, the results are consistent with the observation that the amount of random, unexplained variance varies inversely with sample size. Appendices include a set of computed statements, an explanation and listing of the 12 goodness-of-fit indicators, a bibliography, a table of results, and figures showing sample size effect. (Author/LMO) *********************************************************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. ***********************************************************************

Creativity syndrome: Integration, application, and innovation.

Abstract: Apres une definition du concept de creativite est effectuee une revue de la litterature consacree au developpement de l'innovation dans la reussite professionnelle, mettant l'accent sur l'integration et la reorganisation des structures cognitives

Evolving conceptions of memory storage, selective attention, and their mutual constraints within the human information-processing system.

Abstract: The purpose of this review is to formulate a revised model of information processing that takes into account recent research on memory storage, selective attention, effortful versus automatic processing, and the mutual constraints that these areas place on one another. One distinctive aspect of the proposed model is the inclusion of two phases of sensory storage in each modality. The first phase extends sensation for several hundred milliseconds, whereas the second phase is a vivid recollection of sensation. The mechanism of at least the longer phase is the activation of features in long-term memory, comparable to the mechanism of non-sensory, short-term storage. Another distinctive aspect of the model is that habituation/dishabituation and central executive processes together are assumed to determine the focus of attention, without the need for either an early or a late attentional filter. Research issues that contribute to a comparison of models are discussed.

Gender differences in verbal ability: A meta-analysis.

Abstract: Many regard gender differences in verbal ability to be one of the well-established findings in psychology. To reassess this belief. Y.'C located 165 studies that reported data on gender differences in verbal ability. The Y.'Cightcd mean effect size (d) was +0.11, indicating a slight female superiority in performance. The difference is so small that we argue that gender differences in verbal ability no longer exist. Analyses of effect sizes for different measures of verbal ability showed almost all to be small in magni tude: for vocabulary. d = 0.02; for analogies, d = 0.16 (slight male superiority in performance): for reading comprehension. d = 0.03: for speech production, d = 0.33 (the largest effect size): for essay writing, d = 0.09; for anagrams, d = 0.22; and for tests of general verbal abil ity, d = 0.20. For the 1985 administration of the Scholastic Aptitude TestVerbal. d = 0.11. indicating superior male performance. Analysis of tests requiring different cognitive processes involved inverbal ability yielded no evidence of substantial gender differences in any aspect of processing. Similarly, an analj,is by age indicated no striking changes in the magnitude of gender differences :ot different ages. countering Maccoby and Jacklin's ( 1974) conclusion that gender differences in verbal ability emerge around age II. For studies published in 1973 or earlier. d = 0.23 and for studies published after !973, a = 0.10, indicating a slight decline in the magnitude of the gender difference in recent years. The implications of these fi ndings are discussed, including their implications for theories of sex differences in brain latcralization and their relation to changing gender roles.

Cognitive Processes Underlying Context Effects in Attitude Measurement

Abstract: We begin this article with the assumption that attitudes are best understood as structures in longterm memory, and we look at the implications of this view for the response process in attitude surveys. More specifically, we assert that an answer to an attitude question is the product of a fourstage process. Respondents first interpret the attitude question, determining what attitude the question is about. They then retrieve relevant beliefs and feelings. Next, they apply these beliefs and feelings in rendering the appropriate judgment. Finally, they use this judgment to select a response. All four of the component processes can be affected by prior items. The prior items can provide a framework for interpreting later questions and can also make some responses appear to be redundant with earlier answers. The prior items can prime some beliefs, making them more accessible to the retrieval process. The prior items can suggest a norm or standard of comparison for making the judgment. Finally, the prior items can create consistency pressures or pressures to appear moderate. Because of the multiple processes involved, context effects are difficult to predict and sometimes difficult to replicate. We attempt to sort out when context is likely to affect later responses and include a list of the variables that affect the size and direction of the effects of context.

Psychosocial Functioning and Depression: Distinguishing Among Antecedents, Concomitants, and Consequences

Abstract: In this article we attempt to distinguish empirically between psycho-social variables that are concomitants of depression, and variables that may serve as antecedents or sequelae of this disorder. We review studies that investigated the relationship between depression and any of six psychosocial variables after controlling for the effects of concurrent depression. The six variables examined are attributional style, dysfunctional attitudes, personality, social support, marital distress, and coping style. The review suggests that whereas there is little evidence in adults of a cognitive vulnerability to clinical depression, disturbances in interpersonal functioning may be antecedents or sequelae of this disorder. Specifically, marital distress and low social integration appear to be involved in the etiology of depression, and introversion and interpersonal dependency are identified as enduring abnormalities in the functioning of remitted depressives. We attempt to integrate what is known about the relationships among these latter variables, suggest ways in which they may influence the development of depression, and outline specific issues to be addressed in future research.

Self-defeating behavior patterns among normal individuals: review and analysis of common self-destructive tendencies

Abstract: Three conceptual models of self-defeating behavior can be distinguished on the basis of intentionality (desiring and foreseeing harm). In primary self-destruction, the person foresees and desires harm to self; in tradeoffs, the harm is foreseen but not desired; and in counterproductive strategies, the harm is neither foreseen nor desired. We review 12 categories of self-defeating behavior patterns from the research literature in social psychology. No clear evidence of primary self-destruction is found. Several tradeoff patterns have been shown: Typically, the individual favors short-term benefits despite long-term costs and risks, especially under the influence of aversive emotional states and high self-awareness. Counterproductive strategies have also been found, usually based on misjudging self or misjudging contingencies. It is concluded that normal people do harm themselves and defeat their projects by means of poor judgments, by maladaptive responses, through unforeseen consequences of nonoptimal methods, and by disregarding costs and risks in favor of immediate pleasure or relief; however, there is no clear evidence of intentional, deliberate self-destructiveness among normal (nonclinical) individuals. © 1988 American Psychological Association.

Improved Bonferroni-type multiple testing procedures.

Abstract: The Bonferroni multiple comparisons procedure is customarily used when doing several simultaneous tests of significance in relatively nonstandard situations in which other methods do not apply. We review some new and improved competitors to the Bonferroni procedure, that although constraining generalized Type I error probability to be at most a, afford increased power in exchange for increased complexity in implementation. An improvement to the weighted form of the Bonferroni procedure is also presented. Several data sets are reanalyzed with the new methods.

Age and outstanding achievement: what do we know after a century of research?

Abstract: This article examines, in four sections, the substantial literature on the longitudinal connection between personal age and outstanding achievement in domains of creativity and leadership. First, the key empirical findings are surveyed, with special focus on the typical age curve and its variations across disciplines, the association between precocity, longevity, and production rate, and the linkage between quantity and quality of output over the course of a career. Second, the central methodological issues are outlined, such as the compositional fallacy and differential competition, in order to appraise the relative presence of fact and artifact in the reported results. Third, the more important theoretical interpretations of the longitudinal data are presented and then evaluated for explanatory and predictive power. Fourth and last, central empirical, methodological, and theoretical considerations lead to a set of critical questions on which future research should likely concentrate. For centuries, thinkers have speculated about the association between a person's age and exceptional accomplishment: Is there an optimal age for a person to make a lasting contribution to human culture or society? When during the life span can we expect an individual to be most prolific or influential? It comes as no surprise, then, that one of the oldest topics in life span developmental psychology is the relation between age and achievement. Perhaps the earliest investigation into this matter may be found in Beard's (1874)

Matching for attractiveness in romantic partners and same-sex friends: A meta-analysis and theoretical critique.

Abstract: Seventeen studies of similarity in physical attractiveness between members of romantic couples or pairs of same-sex friends, employing 34 independent samples of dyads, were retrieved. Meta-analysis found the interpartner correlation for attractiveness to be higher for romantic couples than for pairs of friends. For couples, the correlations were homogeneous across 27 samples, with an average correlation of .39 (.49 after correction for attenuation). For pairs of friends, variations among correlations were found but were explained by gender of dyad: the matching effect was obtained only with men. Romantic partners were also similar in their self-ratings of attractiveness. These findings were related to contemporary theories of relationship formation.

Etiology and treatment of the psychological side effects associated with cancer chemotherapy: a critical review and discussion.

Abstract: Cancer patients receiving chemotherapeutic treatments routinely experience a wide range of distressing side effects, including nausea, vomiting, and dysphoria. Such symptoms often compromise patients1 quality of life and may lead to the decision to postpone or even reject future, potentially life-saving, treatments. In this article, we discuss the hypotheses that have been offered to explain the development of such symptoms. We also review, in greater detail, the research evidence for the efficacy of five treatments for such symptoms: hypnosis, progressive muscle relaxation training with guided imagery, systematic desensitization, attentional diversion or redirection, and biofeedback. We discuss the implications of this treatment research, paying particular attention to factors associated with treatment outcome, mechanisms of treatment effectiveness, and issues associated with clinical application.

MMPI, Rorschach, and WAIS: A Meta-Analytic Comparison of Reliability, Stability, and Validity

Abstract: We estimated the average reliability, stability, and validity of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), Rorschach Inkblot Test, and Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) from articles published in the Journal of Personality Assessment and the Journal of Clinical Psychology betwee

Behavioral momentum and the partial reinforcement effect

Abstract: Nouvelle analyse des contradictions entre la resistance au changement en fonction du taux de renforcement et l'effet de plus grande resistance a l'extinction d'un comportement instrumental partiellement renforce

Statistical Treatment of the Solomon Four-Group Design: A Meta-Analytic Approach

Abstract: One of the causes of the underuse of the Solomon four-group design may be that the complete details for the statistical analysis have not previously been presented. The primary issue previously unaddressed was how to combine an analysis of the effect of the treatment in the posttest-only groups with the same effect in the pre- and posttest groups (after an earlier phase of the analysis has shown no evidence of pretest sensitization.) A meta-analytic solution for this problem is proposed, and the entire analysis is presented, complete with flowchart and example. It is shown that the analysis has adequate statistical power even if the total N is not increased from that of a posttest-only design, removing the last of the serious objections to the Solomon design.