Showing papers in "Psychological Bulletin in 1996"

The effects of feedback interventions on performance: A historical review, a meta-analysis, and a preliminary feedback intervention theory.

Abstract: the total number of papers may exceed 10,000. Nevertheless, cost consideration forced us to consider mostly published papers and technical reports in English. 4 Formula 4 in Seifert (1991) is in error—a multiplier of n, of cell size, is missing in the numerator. 5 Unfortunately, the technique of meta-analysis cannot be applied, at present time, to such effects because the distribution of dis based on a sampling of people, whereas the statistics of techniques such as ARIMA are based on the distribution of a sampling of observations in the time domain regardless of the size of the people sample involved (i.e., there is no way to compare a sample of 100 points in time with a sample of 100 people). That is, a sample of 100 points in time has the same degrees of freedom if it were based on an observation of 1 person or of 1,000 people. 258 KLUGER AND DENISI From the papers we reviewed, only 131 (5%) met the criteria for inclusion. We were concerned that, given the small percentage of usable papers, our conclusions might not fairly represent the larger body of relevant literature. Therefore, we analyzed all the major reasons to reject a paper from the meta-analysis, even though the decision to exclude a paper came at the first identification of a missing inclusion criterion. This analysis showed the presence of review articles, interventions of natural feedback removal, and papers that merely discuss feedback, which in turn suggests that the included studies represent 1015% of the empirical FI literature. However, this analysis also showed that approximately 37% of the papers we considered manipulated feedback without a control group and that 16% reported confounded treatments, that is, roughly two thirds of the empirical FI literature cannot shed light on the question of FI effects on performance—a fact that requires attention from future FI researchers. Of the usable 131 papers (see references with asterisks), 607 effect sizes were extracted. These effects were based on 12,652 participants and 23,663 observations (reflecting multiple observations per participant). The average sample size per effect was 39 participants. The distribution of the effect sizes is presented in Figure 1. The weighted mean (weighted by sample size) of this distribution is 0.41, suggesting that, on average, FI has a moderate positive effect on performance. However, over 38% of the effects were negative (see Figure 1). The weighted variance of this distribution is 0.97, whereas the estimate of the sampling error variance is only 0.09. A potential problem in meta-analyses is a violation of the assumption of independence. Such a violation occurs either when multiple observations are taken from the same study (Rosenthal, 1984) or when several papers are authored by the same person (Wolf, 1986). In the present investigation, there were 91 effects derived from the laboratory experiments reported by Mikulincer (e.g., 1988a, 1988b). This raises the possibility that the average effect size is biased, because his studies manipulated extreme negative FIs and used similar tasks. In fact, the weighted average d in Mikulincer's studies was —0.39; whereas in the remainder of the

The empirical case for two systems of reasoning.

Abstract: Distinctions have been proposed between systems of reasoning for centuries. This article distills properties shared by many of these distinctions and characterizes the resulting systems in light of recent findings and theoretical developments. One system is associative because its computations reflect similarity structure and relations of temporal contiguity. The other is "rule based" because it operates on symbolic structures that have logical content and variables and because its computations have the properties that are normally assigned to rules. The systems serve complementary functions and can simultaneously generate different solutions to a reasoning problem. The rule-based system can suppress the associative system but not completely inhibit it. The article reviews evidence in favor of the distinction and its characterization. One of the oldest conundrums in psychology is whether people are best conceived as parallel processors of information who operate along diffuse associative links or as analysts who operate by deliberate and sequential manipulation of internal representations. Are inferences drawn through a network of learned associative pathways or through application of a kind of"psychologic" that manipulates symbolic tokens in a rule-governed way? The debate has raged (again) in cognitive psychology for almost a decade now. It has pitted those who prefer models of mental phenomena to be built out of networks of associative devices that pass activation around in parallel and distributed form (the way brains probably function) against those who prefer models built out of formal languages in which symbols are composed into sentences that are processed sequentially (the way computers function). An obvious solution to the conundrum is to conceive of the

The relationship between social support and physiological processes: a review with emphasis on underlying mechanisms and implications for health.

Abstract: In this review, the authors examine the evidence linking social support to physiological processes and characterize the potential mechanisms responsible for these covariations. A review of 81 studies revealed that social support was reliably related to beneficial effects on aspects of the cardiovascular, endocrine, and immune systems. An analysis of potential mechanisms underlying these associations revealed that (a) potential health-related behaviors do not appear to be responsible for these associations; (b) stress-buffering effects operate in some studies; (c) familial sources of support may be important; and (d) emotional support appears to be at least 1 important dimension of social support. Recommendations and directions for future research include the importance of conceptualizing social support as a multidimensional construct, examination of potential mechanisms across levels of analyses, and attention to the physiological process of interest.

The Emotional Stroop Task and Psychopathology

Abstract: Attentional bias is a central feature of many cognitive theories of psychopathology. One of the most frequent methods of investigating such bias has been an emotional analog of the Stroop task. In this task, participants name the colors in which words are printed, and the words vary in their relevance to each theme of psychopathology. The authors review research showing that patients are often slower to name the color of a word associated with concerns relevant to their clinical condition. They address the causes and mechanisms underlying the phenomenon, focusing on J.D. Cohen, K. Dunbar, and J.L. McClelland's (1990) parallel distributed processing model.

An application of prefrontal cortex function theory to cognitive aging.

Abstract: The purpose of this review is to extend the existing application of the frontal lobe hypothesis of cognitive aging beyond the limited work on inhibitory control (F. N. Dempster, 1992) to include memory processes supported by the prefrontal cortex. To establish a background for this analysis, I review existing models of prefrontal cortex function and present a synthesized model that includes a general function of temporal integration, supported by 4 specific processes: prospective memory, retrospective memory, interference control, and inhibition of prepotent responses. I found the frontal lobe hypothesis to perform well, with the exception of an inability to account for age-related declines in item recall and recognition memory, possibly a result of age-related declines in medial temporal function.

Culture and conformity: A meta-analysis of studies using Asch's (1952b, 1956) line judgment task.

Abstract: A meta-analysis of conformity studies using an Asch-type line judgment task (1952b, 1956) was conducted to investigate whether the level of conformity has changed over time and whether it is related crogs-culturally to individualism-collectivism. The fiterature search produced 133 studies drawn from 17 countries. An analysis of U.S. studies found that conformity has declined since the 1950s. Results from 3 surveys were used to assess a country's individualism-collectivism, and for each survey the measures were found to be significantly related to conformity. Collectivist countries tended to show higher levels of conformity than individualist countries. Conformity research must attend more to cultural variables and to their role in the processes involved in social influence. The view has long been held that conformity is to some extent a product of cultural conditions, and it is a stable feature of popular stereotypes that some national groups are conforming and submissive, whereas others are independent and self-assertive (e.g., Peabody, 1985 ). Likewise, the extent to which dissidence is tolerated in a society will vary at different points in its history, and several commentators have suggested that the relatively high levels of conformity found in experiments conducted in the early 1950s (notably Asch, 1952b, 1956) was in part a product of the McCarthy era (e.g., Larsen, 1974; Mann, 1980; Perrin & Spencer, 1981 ). Although Asch's ( 1952b, 1956) seminal research is often interpreted as demonstrating that conformity is fundamental to group processes (Friend, Rafferty, & Bramel, 1990), Asch was as much concerned with those factors that enabled individuals to resist group pressure, factors which he saw as rooted in a society's values and socialization practices. That we have found the tendency to conformity in our society so strong that reasonably intelligent and well-meaning young people are willing to call White Black is a matter of concern. It raises questions about our ways of education and about the values that guide our conduct. (Asch, 1955, p. 34)

An integrative framework for explaining reactions to decisions: interactive effects of outcomes and procedures.

Abstract: The authors suggest that procedural and distributive factors interactively combine to influence individuals' reactions to their encounters with other people, groups, and organizations. Results from 45 independent samples (reviewed herein) show that (a) level of procedural justice is more positively related to individuals' reactions when outcome fairness or valence is relatively low and (b) level of outcome fairness or valence is more positively related to individuals' reactions when procedural justice is relatively low. They present various explanations of the interaction effect. Theoretical progress may be achieved through future efforts to delineate the conditions under which each of the explanations is more versus less likely to account for the interaction.

Social consequences of experiential openness.

Abstract: Openness to Experience is one of the 5 broad factors that subsume most personality traits. Openness is usually considered an intrapsychic dimension, defined in terms of characteristics of consciousness. However, different ways of approaching and processing experience lead to different value systems that exercise a profound effect on social interactions. In this article, the author reviews the effects of Openness versus Closedness in cultural innovation, political ideology, social attitudes, marital choice, and interpersonal relations. The construct of Openness and its measures could profitably be incorporated into research conducted by social psychologists, sociologists, political scientists, anthropologists, and historians.

A meta-analytic review of research on hostility and physical health.

Abstract: A new meta-analysis of research on hostility and physical health was conducted that includes 15 studies used in previous meta-analytic reviews and 30 new independent studies. Overall, the results suggest that hostility is an independent risk factor for coronary heart disease (CHD). For structured interview indicators of potential for hostility, the weighted mean r was .18. After controlling for other risk factors for CHD, the widely used Cook-Medley Hostility Scale and other cognitive-experiential measures were most predictive of all-cause mortality (weighted mean r = .16) and, to a lesser extent, CHD (weighted mean r = .08). Similar to other areas of research, the increased use of high-risk studies in recent years produced an increase in null findings.

For Better or Worse: The Impact of Upward Social Comparison on Self-Evaluations

Abstract: Upward social comparison is generally regarded as ego deflating, yet people often compare themselves with those whose abilities and attributes are better than their own. Upward comparison provides useful information, which may partially account for this behavior. Furthermore, it is proposed that upw

A meta-analysis and review of organizational research on job involvement.

Abstract: The author develops a theoretical framework relating job involvement to its antecedents, correlates, and consequences and reports meta-analyses of 51 pairwise relationships involving job involvement. Results of the meta-analyses support research suggesting that job involvement is influenced by personality and situational variables. Job involvement was strongly related to job and work attitudes but not to role perceptions, behavioral work outcomes, negative "side effects," or demographic variables. Moderator analyses indicated little difference in the strength of relationships based on involvement measure. The author found modest but systematic differences in the strength of relationships between studies of employees of public versus private organizations. He compares and contrasts the results of this study with meta-analytic findings regarding organizational commitment, discusses important theoretical considerations in the research stream, and offers suggestions for future research.

Gender differences in aggression as a function of provocation: A meta-analysis.

Abstract: In this article, we meta-analytically examine experimental studies to assess the moderating effect of provocation on gender differences in aggression. Convergent evidence shows that, whereas unprovoked men are more aggressive than women, provocation markedly attenuates this gender difference. Gender differences in appraisals of provocation intensity and fear of danger from retaliation (but not negative affect) partially mediate the attenuating effect of provocation. However, they do not entirely account for its manipulated effect. Type of provocation and other contextual variables also affect the magnitude of gender differences in aggression. The results support a social role analysis of gender differences in aggression and counter A. H. Eagly and V. Steffen's (see record 1987-10140-001) meta-analytic inability to confirm an attenuating effect of provocation on gender differences in aggression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Early identification of chronic offenders: who is the fledgling psychopath?

Abstract: In this article, the author highlights the need for early intervention for chronic offenders He reviews evidence suggesting that children who manifest symptoms of hyperactivity-impulsivity-attention problems (HIA) and conduct problems (CP) are at the greatest risk for chronic offending He reviews existing theories of the relations among constructs: (a) HIA increases risk in those already at risk and (b) HIA leads to symptoms of CP In addition, he advances a third theory that children with symptoms of HIA and CP are afflicted with a virulent strain of conduct disorder best described as fledgling psychopathy The author discusses treatment implications and supporting evidence for each model Finally, he recommends that the subtype theory receive further consideration and examination

Alcohol abuse in individuals exposed to trauma: A critical review.

Abstract: In this article, the author critically reviews studies on the relationship between exposure to trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and alcohol abuse. After establishing that strong relationships exist between exposure to traumatic events and alcohol problems, and particularly between the diagnoses of PTSD and alcoholism, the author discusses various factors, theories, and possible mechanisms to account for these associations. Moreover, she discusses applications of these findings to the assessment and treatment of people exposed to trauma who abuse alcohol. Finally, the author outlines novel methods for testing theoretical hypotheses and makes suggestions for methodological improvements in future research. This article critically reviews the evidence for an important functional relationship between posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and alcoholism. Although several reviewers have shown a significant overlap between certain anxiety disorders and alcohol abuse (e.g., B. J. Cox, Norton, Swinson, & Endler, 1990; Kushner, Sher, & Beitman, 1990; Pihl & Stewart, 1991 ), they did not consider the relationship between PTSD and alcoholism. One review examined the relationship between PTSD and substance abuse (i.e., Keane, Gerardi, Lyons, & Wolfe, 1988 ). However, their focus was very different from this review, assessing abuse of a wide range of chemical substances by only Vietnam veterans exposed to trauma. The purposes of this article are to (a) examine the empirical evidence for the cooccurrence of trauma exposure and alcohol problems and for the comorbidity between PTSD and alcoholism across various traumatic events; (b) critique methodological issues in the literature; (c) review theoretical mechanisms that may account for the relationship of trauma exposure, PTSD, and alcohol abuse; (d) discuss the implications of this research for the assessment and treatment of individuals comorbid for PTSD and alcoholism; and (e) suggest directions for future research. It should be made clear at the outset that this review focuses specifically on alcohol abuse in response to psychological trauma (e.g., sexual assault) as opposed to stressful life events (i.e., negative events that are not necessarily traumatic, such as divorce; Holmes & Rahe, 1967) or physical trauma (e.g., head injury). As these latter two issues are not a focus of this article, the interested reader is referred to reviews on the associations between alcohol abuse and stressful life events (Beckman, 1976; Benson & Wilsnack, 1983; Straussner, 1985 ) and alcohol abuse and physical trauma (Solomon & Malloy, 1992). Although conI thank Richard J. McNally and Robert O. Pihl for their helpful comments on drafts of this article.

Voicing the self: From information processing to dialogical interchange

Abstract: Dialogue implies an interchange between mutually influencing voices. Two metaphors playing a major role in contemporary research are analyzed from such a perspective: the computer metaphor, in which the self is studied as an information-processing device, and the narrative metaphor, in which, story and storytelling are guiding principles for the self. It is argued that, on the metaphorical level, the computer and the narrative analogy allow voice and intersubjective exchange to play important roles in self-organization. In actual research, however, these elements are neglected. Theoretical and empirical arguments emphasize the relevance of the dialogical view for the study of the self. Finally, the role of dominance in inter- and intrapersonal processes and the relevance of collective voices for contemporary psychology are sketched.

Machiavellianism : a synthesis of the evolutionary and psychological literatures

Abstract: Manipulative strategies of social conduct (Machiavellianism) have been studied by both psychologists and evolutionary biologists. The authors use the psychological literature as a database to test evolutionary hypotheses about the adaptive advantages of manipulative social behavior. Machiavellianism does not correlate with general intelligence and does not consistently lead to real-world success. It is best regarded as 1 of several social strategies, broadly similar to the "defect" strategy of evolutionary game theory, which is successful in some situations but not others. In general, human evolutionary psychology and evolutionary game theory provide useful frameworks for thinking about behavioral strategies, such as Machiavellian ism, and identify a large number of specific hypotheses that have not yet been tested by personality and social psychologists. Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) was a Florentine diplomat who visited the courts of Europe and observed firsthand the rise and fall of their leaders. His own fall came with the overthrow of the regime that he served. He wrote The Prince (Machiavelli, 1513 /1966) to ingratiate himself with the new ruler. The Prince is a book of advice on how to acquire and stay in power. It is based entirely on expediency and is devoid of the traditional virtues of trust, honor, and decency. A typical passage is, "Men are so simple and so much inclined to obey immediate needs that a deceiver will never lack victims for his deceptions" (p. 63). Machiavelli failed to gain favor with the new prince, but his name has come to represent a strategy of social conduct in which others are regarded entirely as means toward personal ends. As a historical aside, Machiavelli himself was not very Machiavellian, displaying an uncommon devotion to his city. Some of his other works, such as Discourses (Machiavelli, 1513/1950), also stress nonmanipulative themes. Christie and Geis (1968, 1970a, 1970b) were the first psychologists to study Machiavellianism as an important axis of human behavioral variation. They developed a series ofMach tests that measure a participant's agreement with statements such as "Never tell anyone the real reason you did something unless it is useful to do so." High and low scorers on the test, often referred to as high-Machs and low-Machs, respectively, differ in many other aspects of their behavior, from vocational choice to success at games that involve forming alliances. The

Complaints and complaining : functions, antecedents, and consequences

Abstract: Although everyone complains at least occasionally, surprisingly little research attention has been devoted to the topic of complaining. In this review, complaints are defined as expressions of dissatisfaction, whether subjectively experienced or not, for the purpose of venting emotions or achieving intrapsychic goals, interpersonal goals, or both. A theoretical model of complaining is presented that examines the relationship between self-focus, the perceived utility of complaining, and complaining. In addition, this article examines variables related to people's dissatisfaction and complaining thresholds (i.e., negative affect, locus of control, self-presentational concerns, age, and gender), functions of complaining, and intrapersonal and interpersonal consequences of complaining.

Alcohol and aggression : a meta-analysis on the moderating effects of inhibitory cues, triggering events, and self-focused attention

Abstract: The authors conducted a meta-analysis of 49 studies to investigate 2 explanations of how alcohol increases aggression by decreasing sensitivity to cues that inhibit it. Both the level of anxiety and inhibition conflict moderated the difference between the aggressive behavior of sober and intoxicated participants, but neither level adequately accounted for variation in effect sizes. Additional analyses of 3 social psychological moderating variables-provocation, frustration, and self-focused attention-showed that the aggressiveness of intoxicated participants relative to sober ones increased as a function of frustration but decreased as a function of provocation and self-focused attention. The authors also examined the moderating effects of dose. Language: en

Relation Between Perceived Vulnerability to HIV and Precautionary Sexual Behavior

Abstract: Although virtually all major theories of health-protective behavior assume that precautionary behavior is related to perceived vulnerability, the applicability of this assumption to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) preventive behavior has recently been called into question. This article uses qualitative and quantitative methods to review and integrate the literature relevant to the relation between perceived vulnerability to HIV and precautionary sexual behavior. Specifically, the purpose of the article is to determine whether the extent research supports 2 hypotheses regarding this relation; (a) Perceptions of personal vulnerability to HIV are reflections of current and recent risk and precautionary behavior, and (b) these perceptions motivate precautionary sexual behavior. In addition, it examines the conceptual and methodological strengths and weaknesses of the empirical literature on these questions and provides recommendations for future research.

Latent Variable Interaction and Quadratic Effect Estimation: A Two-Step Technique Using Structural Equation Analysis

Abstract: The author proposes an alternative estimation technique for latent variable interactions and quadraties. Available techniques for specifying these variables in structural equation models require adding variables or constraint equations that can produce specification tedium and errors or estimation difficulties. The proposed technique avoids these difficulties and may be useful for EQS, LISREL 7, and LISREL 8 users. First, measurement parameters for indicator Ioadings and errors of linear latent variables are estimated in a measurement model that excludes the interaction and quadratic variables. Next, these estimates are used to calculate values for the indicator loadings and error variances ofthe interaction and quadratic latent variables. Then, these calculated values are specified as constants in the structural model containing the interaction and quadratic variables. Interaction and quadratic effects are routinely reported for categorical independent variables (i.e., in analysis of variance) frequently to aid in the interpretation of significant main effects. However, interaction and quadratic effects are less frequently reported for continuous independent variables.

Parental investment theory and gender differences in the evolution of inhibition mechanisms.

Abstract: Based on the tenets of parental investment theory, the authors postulate that there was greater pressure to inhibit potentially maladaptive emotional, social, and sexual responses on prehistoric women than men in some contexts, resulting in enhanced inhibitory abilities in women in some domains. They reviewed studies whose researchers examined gender differences on social, behavioral, and cognitive tasks involving inhibition and found gender differences favoring female humans most consistent for social tasks (e.g., control of emotions), somewhat less pronounced for behavioral tasks (e.g., delay of gratification), and weak and inconsistent for cognitive tasks (e.g., conceptual tempo). This pattern was interrupted as being consistent with the position that gender differences in inhibition are relatively domain specific in nature, with women demonstrating greater abilities on tasks related to reproduction and childrearing, which is consistent with parental investment theory.

Applying cognitive-social theory to health-protective behavior: breast self-examination in cancer screening.

Abstract: This article applies recent developments in cognitive-social theory to health-protective behavior, articulating a Cognitive-Social Health Information Processing (C-SHIP) model. This model of the genesis and maintenance of health-protective behavior focuses on the individual's encodings and construals, expectancies, affects, goals and values, self-regulatory competencies, and their interactions with each other and the health-relevant information in the course of cognitive-affective processing. In processing health information, individuals are assumed to differ in both the accessibility of these mental representations and the organization of relationships among them. In this article, the model is applied to analyze and integrate the often-confusing findings on breast self-examination in cancer screening. Implications are considered for assessments and interventions to enhance adherence to complex, long-term, health-protective regimens, tailored to the needs and characteristics of the individual.

Cognitive components of picture naming

Abstract: A substantial research literature documents the effects of diverse item attributes, task conditions, and participant characteristics on the case of picture naming. The authors review what the research has revealed about 3 generally accepted stages of naming a pictured object: object identification, name activation, and response generation. They also show that dual coding theory gives a coherent and plausible account of these findings without positing amodal conceptual representations, and they identify issues and methods that may further advance the understanding of picture naming and related cognitive tasks.

Elevated blood pressure and personality: a meta-analytic review.

Abstract: A meta-analysis of 295 relevant effect sizes obtained from 25,469 participants confirmed expectations that elevated blood pressure (BP) and essential hypertension (EH) would be associated with lower affect expression but with more negative affectivity and defensiveness. The strongest associations occurred for defensiveness and measures of anger and affect expression linked to an interpersonal context(s). However, a number of other factors also were found to moderate associations of BP with personality measures, including awareness of BP status, gender, occupation, and diastolic versus systolic BP assessment. Given these moderators, the authors conclude that a traditional view of personality causing EH is untenable and that, not incorporating multifactorial, synergistic approaches is likely to obscure associations of personality-behavior with EH.