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Showing papers in "Pure and Applied Geophysics in 1971"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The model of dissipation based on memory introduced by Caputo is generalized and checked with experimental dissipation curves of various materials.
Abstract: The model of dissipation based on memory introduced by Caputo is generalized and checked with experimental dissipation curves of various materials

725 citations


Book ChapterDOI
TL;DR: The results of direct measurements (Narcisi, 1969) of D-region ion composition can now be understood on the basis of a reaction model calculated with measured reaction rate constants as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Tremendous progress has been made in recent years in understanding positive ion formation in the D-region. The results of direct measurements (Narcisi, 1969) of D-region ion composition can now be understood on the basis of a reaction model calculated with measured reaction rate constants (Fehsenfeld and Ferguson, 1969; Ferguson and Fehsenfeld, 1969). Similar progress has been made on explaining the D-region negative ion chemistry, and some very successful results have been obtained in recent months (Ferguson, private communication).

83 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Vertical and horizontal atmospheric electric fields measurements at balloon altitudes, considering magnetospheric processes effect and potential differences were performed by as mentioned in this paper, where the authors considered the effect of magnetic processes on the magnetosphere.
Abstract: Vertical and horizontal atmospheric electric fields measurements at balloon altitudes, considering magnetospheric processes effect and potential differences

75 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors argue that the proper scope of meteorology should include, besides the earth's atmosphere, the sun's atmosphere (the solar corona), the associated interplanetary magnetic field, and lunar modulation of this environment.
Abstract: The basic thesis of this paper is that the proper scope of meteorology should include, besides the earth's atmosphere, the sun's atmosphere (the solar corona), the associated interplanetary magnetic field, and lunar modulation of this environment. Recent advances in space science have enabled us to make direct measurements in this region for the first time. The shape and characteristics of the magnetosphere have been completely redefined during the last ten years from a simple magnetic dipole to the present model with an elongated tail stretched out by the solar wind. The interplanetary magnetic field has been defined with its spiral structure and sectors tied into the solar surface. This provides a magnetic link between the sun and earth. It is probable that extra-terrestrial factors do play a role in regulating weather, although the extent of this influence remains to be determined. Possibly such effects are most significant or easily detectable in the realm of atmospheric electricity. In view of the limitations in our present knowledge of all the variables responsible for regulating weather, it would seem appropriate to pursue the study of extra-terrestrial influences. Such research could lead to a better understanding of atmospheric circulation, precipitation mechanisms and thunderstorms. The field of meteorology which might particularly benefit from such research is long range weather forecasting.

68 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, three orthogonal coils were constructed within a cube of side 2.5 m to cancel the geomagnetic field to less than 1 gamma over a large volume.
Abstract: Three orthogonal coil systems have been constructed within a cube of side 2.5 m to cancel the geomagnetic field to less than 1 gamma over a large volume. The north-south and vertical components are cancelled by systems of four square coils whilst a square Helmholtz pair cancels the east-west component. Cancellation to 1 part in 105 (0.5 gamma in Canberra) is achieved within a sphere of diameter 35 cm, more than 20 times the field-free volume which could be obtained using conventional Helmholtz coils within the available space. Three fluxgate detectors monitor the residual field and their output, taken through a feedback circuit, allows compensation for field variations. The residual field can be maintained to less than 0.5 gamma over the working volume of about 22,000 cm3 during the critical part of a laboratory experiment.

55 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The possibility of atmospheric electrical effects due to the aurora has been considered by investigators since 1875 as mentioned in this paper, and several interesting interpretations of the observed effects are suggested when considered with recent discussions on atmospheric electrification, such as negative excursions of the atmospheric electric field during fair weather, anomalous increases in negative ion densities and variations in air-earth current density.
Abstract: The possibility of atmospheric electrical effects due to the aurora has been considered by investigators since 1875. An unsatisfactory theoretical basis for an explanation of observed effects and the measurements of only a few of the related parameters for short periods of time has led to uncertainty in the matter. Nevertheless, since the IGY2), new discoveries related to the aurora portray an unusual complexity, and a wide range of energy input. When considered with recent discussions on atmospheric electrification some interesting interpretations of the observed effects are suggested. On the ground, large negative excursions of the atmospheric electric field (E) during fair weather, and above 100 mb3) peculiar increases in negative ion densities and variations in air-earth current density (I) all appear to be related to auroral activity. A difference in (I) measured simultaneously at geomagnetic latitudes 55° and 68°N which is greater than what one would expect from a difference in conductivity due to cosmic rays may also be due to the aurora. Several models of the observed effects will be considered: (1) the high influx of negative space charge, i.e. a precipitation of around 1014 elementary charges m−2 s−1; (2) the auroral bremsstrahlung flux acts as an atmospheric current generator; (3) plasma instability in the auroral electrojet; (4) a combination of (2) and (3). The infrequent observation of the auroral effects on atmospheric electricity is probably due to limitations in detecting an extreme local fluctuation in such a large-scale complex phenomenon.

50 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: For the period February 1967-May 1969, a period of increasing solar activity, unrestricted substantiation was obtained of earlier results which had indicated that subsequent to Hα-flares potential gradient and air-earth current will increase significantly as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: For the period February 1967–May 1969, a period of increasing solar activity, unrestricted substantiation was obtained of earlier results which had indicated that subsequent to Hα-flares potential gradient and air-earth current will increase significantly. A presupposition of this result is that the atmospheric electrical elements are recorded at stations with only minimal local climatic and aerosol physical disturbance factors, and that only meteorologically undisturbed days are used. It was ascertained that the exclusive use of fine weather days is of no influence on the results. The confirmed solar-terrestrial relation is even more pronounced when measurements are based on flares in the vicinity of the central meridian of the sun. It was further substantiated that the frequency of sferics pulses is significantly increased from the flare day on. As the cause for this a solar-triggered increase in thunderstorm frequency is suggested which, in turn, leads to an increase of the potential gradient and earth current. Proton flares have an effect analogous to that of Hα-flares. If Hα-flare key days are used on which significant changes were observed in the distribution of pressure over the northern hemisphere, a significant increase of potential gradient and air-earth current is found even with these flare key days. Thus for the first time a connection is made between solar-caused atmospheric electrical effects and synchronous global meteorological changes.

42 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the effects of mechanical shocks of about 0.5 msec in duration on the remanent magnetization of igneous rocks are experimentally studied, and the effect of applying a shock in the presence of a magnetic field (H), which is symbolically expressed asJ�Ω(H+S Ho) is proportional to the piezo-remanent magnetisation.
Abstract: Effects of mechanical shocks of about 0.5 msec in duration on the remanent magnetization of igneous rocks are experimentally studied. The remanent magnetization acquired by applying a shock (S) in the presence of a magnetic field (H), which is symbolically expressed asJ R (H+S Ho), is very large compared with the ordinary isothermal remanent magnetization (IRM) acquired in the same magnetic field.J R (H+S Ho) is proportional to the piezo-remanent magnetization,J R (H+P+Po Ho). The effect of applyingS in advance of an acquisition of IRM is represented symbolically byJ R (S H+ Ho).J R (S H+ Ho) can become much larger than the ordinary IRM, and is proportional to the advance effect of pressure on IRM,J R(P+ P0 H+ H0). The effect of shockS applied on IRM in non-magnetic space is represented by the shock-demagnetization effect,J R(H+ H0 S), which also is proportional toJ R(H+ H0 P+ P0). Because, the duration of a shock is very short, a single shock effect cannot achieve the final steady state. The effect ofn-time repeated shocks, is represented byJ 0+ΔJ *(n), whereJ 0 means the immediate effect and ΔJ *(n) represent the resultant effect of repeating, which is of mathematical expression proportional to [1−exp {−α(n−1)}].

41 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The electrode effect was detected in full magnitude on the Atlantic during the expedition of the research vessel "Meteor" as mentioned in this paper, where the average value of the electric field over the sea surface is about 125 V/m, in about 10 to 100 m over the surface only about 60 V /m. The ionosphere potentials over two places in a distance of 8000 km at 15 dates are nearly identical and in the average 280 kV.
Abstract: The electrode effect could be detected in full magnitude on the Atlantic during the expedition of the research vessel ‘Meteor’. The average value of the electric field over the sea surface is about 125 V/m, in about 10 to 100 m over the surface only about 60 V/m. This phenomenon as well as the results of small ion records lead to a value of the air earth current density on the sea of only 0.9×10−12 A/m2, a quarter of the value accepted up to now. With these values the total current of the global air electric circuit will be about 665 A instead of 1500 to 1800 A. The ionosphere potentials over two places in a distance of 8000 km at 15 dates are nearly identical and in the average 280 kV.

41 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
H. Bungum1, E. S. Husebye1
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated possible error sources in time delay measurements, using a computerized cross-correlation procedure, and found that relative low frequency waves and using the very first part of the P-signals give the most reliable and stable time delay values.
Abstract: Simple delay and sum of sensors in a seismic array is an effective method for noise suppression. However, unless we have precise steering delays, much of the signal energy is lost during the beam forming process too. We have investigated possible error sources in time delay measurements, using a computerized cross-correlation procedure. Parameters perturbed are correlation window length and positioning, signal frequency content and signal to noise ratio (SNR). Our results indicate that relative low frequency waves and using the very first part of theP-signals give the most reliable and stable time delay values. High frequency bandpass filtering improves SNR, but signal correlation and the precision in beam steering corrections decrease. Significant loss of high frequency energy during beamforming seems to be unavoidable.

40 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, it was shown that the inadequacy of multidomain theory and consequent necessity for pseudo-single domain theory are less serious than has been supposed, and that the relative enhancement of ARM in smaller grains is comparable to the enhancement of thermoremanence and therefore appears to indicate a pseudosingle domain contribution to ARM in small grains.
Abstract: ARM has been measured in a range of inducing, steady fields up to 50 oersteds and for 6 sizes of magnetite grains with average diameters 5 μm to 174 μm. For all sizes a slight non-linearity of ARM with inducing field was found, apparently comprising a non-linear contribution independent of grain size plus a linear contribution which increased with decreasing grain size. In the largest grains induced ARM agreed well with multidomain grain theory. Relative enhancement of ARM in smaller grains is comparable to the enhancement of thermoremanence and therefore appears to indicate a pseudosingle domain contribution to ARM in small grains. However the observations allow an alternative explanation in terms of more extreme dimension ratios in the smaller grains. Presentation of the equations for multidomain ARM and TRM using observed instead of intrinsic susceptibilities makes it appear that the inadequacy of multidomain theory (and consequent necessity for pseudo-single domain theory) are less serious than has been supposed.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors used existing gravity and seismic refraction data to deduce a crustal cross section across the Eastern Alps along the meridian 11°4 East, and they found that a high density body of the Ivrea type is present under the southern margin of the Alps, that the Apennines do not have a deep root extending to a depth of 50 km, and that a profound discontinuity extending to the base of the crust exists between the apennines and the Po Valley.
Abstract: Existing gravity and seismic refraction data are used to deduce a crustal cross section across the Eastern Alps along the meridian 11°.4 East. The results suggest that a high density body of the Ivrea type is present under the southern margin of the Alps, that the Apennines do not have a crustal root extending to a depth of 50 km and that a profound discontinuity extending to the base of the crust exists between the Apennines and the Po Valley.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors evaluated the velocities of all crustal phases observed, furthermore of layer thicknesses, Poisson ratios and amplitude ratios, and provided a first approximation to the crustal structure in Sweden, partly to provide regional data for location of earthquakes and explosions in the area.
Abstract: Records obtained at the permanent stations of the Swedish seismograph network from explosions carried out in Scandinavian waters in June 1969 are evaluated. The study includes determination of velocities for all crustal phases observed, furthermore of layer thicknesses, Poisson ratios and amplitude ratios. The purpose of the study is partly to provide a first approximation to the crustal structure in Sweden, partly to provide regional data for location of earthquakes and explosions in the area in the future. Average velocities (km/sec) are forPn 7.88±0.05,Pg1 6.25±0.08,Pg2 5.70,Sn 4.58±0.04,S* 3.70±0.04,Sg1 (Lg1) 3.58±0.03,Sg2 (Sg) 3.40±0.03,Rg 3.02±0.07. The average thickness is 12 km for the granitic layer, and 23 km for the basaltic layer, thus making the average crustal thickness equal to 35 km. Relative amplitudes plotted versus distance complete the dynamical side of the study and they are useful for identification of waves. A regional travel-time table is presented for the distance range 0°–10° with entries for each 0.1° and including all crustal phases read.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A simple statistical estimation procedure is given which defines in a natural way the procedure which must be used when applying, and interpreting the results obtained from, MCI.
Abstract: This paper examines the use of Monte Carlo Inversion (MCI) as an effective means for inverting ((geo)physical) data. Press, following Keilis-Borok and Yanovskaya, has used it successfully as an independent method for density modelling. However, to-date, no statistical basis for the interpretation of the results determined by it in geophysical applications has been developed. Since its future success and credibility will rest heavily on the development of such a basis, we give a simple statistical estimation procedure which defines in a natural way the procedure which must be used when applying, and interpreting the results obtained from, MCI. In addition, it is shown that MCI complements, rather than competes with, the work of Backus and Gilbert.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The feasibility of inferring ionospheric electric fields from measurements at balloon altitudes has been studied by analytical and numerical analysis, using a two-dimensional model atmosphere with exponentially varying conductivity, and taking into account electric fields of tropospheric origin this article.
Abstract: The feasibility of inferring ionospheric electric fields from measurements at balloon altitudes has been studied by analytical and numerical analysis, using a twodimensional model atmosphere with exponentially varying conductivity, and taking into account electric fields of tropospheric origin.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors derived a formula for the rate of slow condensation growth (or evaporation) of drops of any size in a vapour-gas mixture at low vapour content.
Abstract: The intensity of steady diffusion flux onto a sphere absorbing particles with a known probability is determined at arbitrary Knudsen number. New expression for the concentration jump is given. The accuracy of the well known δ-method developed byN. A. Fuchs is estimated. The formula is derived for the rate of slow condensation growth (or evaporation) of drops of any size in a vapour-gas mixture at low vapour content. The results of different authors are compared.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, direct and quantitative methods of SP anomalies caused by some specific geometric bodies have been developed in order to detect SP anomalies in a more complete way than single pole, doublet, infinite line pole, and double infinite line poles.
Abstract: Some direct and quantitative methods of SP anomalies caused by some specific geometric bodies have been developed in this paper. The models of current sources which have been considered are i) single pole, ii) a doublet, iii) a pair of single point poles separated by a horizontal distance, iv) single finite line pole, v) single infinite line pole and vi) two similar double infinite vertical line poles separated by a horizontal distance.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a model for the core-mantle boundary is found, characterized by two low-velocity layers at the bottom of the mantle, and four different models for the quality factorQ are applied to the observational data.
Abstract: Using the Haskell matrix formulation, theoretical reflection coefficient curves have been calculated for a multi-layered core-mantle boundary for comparison with observational data. Two cases are considered, first when the shear velocity in the core is equal to zero and second when the core has a finite rigidity. If the velocity contrast is large between the imbedded layer and the mantle, the reflection coefficient curves for the multi-layered medium are irregular in shape as compared to those for two half-spaces, representing the core and the mantle, respectively. The reflection coefficient curves show an oscillatory character if the imbedded layer is thick and has a high velocity contrast. The observational data consist of short-period vertical-component seismograph records ofP andPcP from nuclear explosions in the Aleutian chain, Nevada, Novaya Zemlya, Kazakh and Sahara. Attenuation and geometrical spreading are taken into consideration. Four different models for the quality factorQ are applied to the observational data. The data are found to be much affected by theQ-model used for the corrections. Based on proposedQ-values, a model for the core-mantle boundary is found, characterized by two low-velocity layers at the bottom of the mantle. The thicknesses are 16.10 km (outer layer) and 19.96 km (inner layer), the compressional wave velocities 12.17 km/sec and 10.94 km/sec and the shear wave velocities are 6.29 km/sec and 5.33 km/sec, respectively. A better fit to this model is found when in addition the shear velocity in the outer core is 2.20 km/sec and the density ratio at the core-mantle boundary is 1.07. In other words, the observations favour a layer of finite rigidity in the outer core rather than a fluid one.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, short-period vertical-component P-wave spectra have been determined for twelve Nevada underground nuclear explosions recorded by the Swedish seismic station network, covering the magnitude range frommb=5.9 tomb=7.0 and the shot-depth range from 460 m to 1400 m. All explosion spectra show pronounced minima near 1 sec period.
Abstract: Short-period vertical-componentP-wave spectra have been determined for twelve Nevada underground nuclear explosions recorded by the Swedish seismic station network. Selected events cover the magnitude range frommb=5.9 tomb=7.0 and the shot-depth range from 460 m to 1400 m. All explosion spectra show pronounced minima near 1 sec period. Within individual test areas the period at which the minimum occurs increases systematically with increasing shot-depth. This dependence makes it possible to interpret the observed minima in terms of interference betweenP- andpP-waves. One atmospheric explosion from Novaya Zemlya is analyzed to verify the inferred minima intrpretation.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the effect of oceanic tides on earth rotation has been investigated and it was shown that the effect is not limited to the North Sea and the 10°-world ocean.
Abstract: The problem of tidal friction as a cause of the secular deceleration of earth rotation was higherto approached on the basis of estimating the kinetic energy dissipated by bottom friction. It would appear however, that in any analysis of the influence of oceanic tides on earth rotation the varying directions of the torques due to tidal streams and acting on the solid earth, must be taken into account. As examples for this, the torques due to tidal friction are calculated for the North Sea and for the 10°-world ocean, applying hydrodynamical-numerical methods. The results show that earth rotation is not retarded at all points of the world ocean, but that tidal areas exist exerting either decelerating or accelerating forces.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the stability characteristics of the observed mean zonal current over India and neighbourhood in winter were analyzed and it was shown that the current is unstable with respect to a small perturbation superimposed on it.
Abstract: The theoretical part of the paper deals with the stability characteristics of the observed mean zonal current over India and neighbourhood in winter. The analysis shows that the mean zonal current is unstable with respect to a small perturbation superimposed on it.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a self-neutralizing, rocket-borne parachute aspiration probe concentration and mobility measurements of positively and negatively charged carriers were made between 72 and 40 km over Sardinia, where the probe was designed so that no electrons could enter the analyzer section of the aspiration system.
Abstract: With a self-neutralizing, rocket-borne parachute aspiration probe concentration and mobility measurements of positively and negatively charged carriers were made between 72 and 40 km over Sardinia. Between 72 km and 60 km a ‘heavy’ and a ‘light’ group of positively charged particles were found. The ‘heavy’ group was more abundant than the ‘hight’ group in the greater heights. For the negatively charged particles only one mobility group was found which roughly corresponded to the mobility of the ‘light’ group of the positively charged carriers. The probe was designed so that no electrons could enter the analyzer section of the aspiration system. By this the electron concentration was given by the difference in concentration between the positively and negatively charged particles.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the magnitude scale for events with only one particular focal depth is defined and it must be decided when two events with different focal depths should be assigned the same magnitude, which will assure consistent magnitudes, must be based on the velocity vs. depth, and eventually the anelasticity vs the depth profiles of the Earth.
Abstract: Presently used\(\bar Q\)-charts for magnitude determinations have been obtained principally on the base of direct observations of ground motion amplitudes, and periods, of several components of seismic waves (such as PZ, PH, SH), as function of epicentral distance. However, observations alone can serve for the definition of a magnitude scale for events with only one particular focal depth. In order to make the magnitude concept applicable to all focal depths, it must be decided when two events with different focal depths should be assigned the same magnitude. Any respective decision, which will assure consistent magnitudes, must be based on the velocity vs. depth, and eventually the anelasticity vs. depth profiles of the Earth.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, an empirical investigation has been conducted on the practical methods of obtaining the spectra of micropulsation activity, and the interpretational limits which can be applied to the detailed use of spectra computed by the Power Spectral Density (PSD) method.
Abstract: An empirical investigation has been conducted on the practical methods of obtaining the spectra of micropulsation activity, and the interpretational limits which can be applied to the detailed use of spectra computed by the Power Spectral Density (PSD) method. Results indicate that sufficiently high resolution may be obtained reliably from the PSD method for it to be regarded as a useful improvement over handscaling methods. The limitation is shown to remain in the selection of events rather than in computational or instrumental properties.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a class of stochastic models of flow through porous media in which the randomness is attached to the structure of the medium rather than to the flow path is discussed.
Abstract: This paper discusses a class of stochastic models of flow through porous media in which the randomness is attached to the structure of the medium rather than to the flow path. These models are obtained by generalizing an earlier model available in the literature where a regular ‘crystal’ was taken in which bonds (flow channels) were dammed in a random fashion, yielding a ‘random maze’. The hydraulic properties of general models of this type are calculated; in particular, it is shown that they exhibit the phenomenon of dispersion whereby the factor of dispersion turns out to be a linear function of the percolation velocity.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated underwater sound waves from earthquakes or so-called T-waves for the years 1953-1968, mainly from Swedish seismograph records, and for comparison also from an earthquake in the equatorial Atlantic withT-waves recorded on both sides of the ocean.
Abstract: Underwater sound waves from earthquakes or so-calledT-waves are investigated for the Atlantic-Arctic area for the years 1953–1968, mainly from Swedish seismograph records, and for comparison also from an earthquake in the equatorial Atlantic withT-waves recorded on both sides of the ocean. The waves travel as sound waves through water, and asPg, Sg andRg over the land path. The North Atlantic source area of theT-waves, recorded at Scandinavian stations, is very well limited in extent with a strong concentration northeast of Jan Mayen, probably due to favourable bottom topography. The calculated sound velocities in water are 1.43 km/sec for the Arctic case and 1.52 km/sec for the equatorial one. TheT-waves exhibit a clear inverse dispersion. The dispersion explains their long duration. The duration of theT-phase increases logarithmically with the maximum amplitudes within theT-wave group and decreases linearly with distance over the land path, corresponding to a quality factor of about 700. Propagation across the ocean by multiple reflections between surface and bottom appears as the most probable mechanism. The particle motion ofT Sg is dominantly transverse horizontal, which is explained by refraction when the waves are transmitted to land. TheT-wave spectra at two different localities show clear relations, depending upon the ocean depths.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the analysis of the frequency spectrum of a vertical magnetic dike-like body, infinitely deep, striking north to determine its width and depth from the surface is presented, by framing amplitude response curves, the parameters were estimated.
Abstract: The present work deals with the analysis of the frequency spectrum of a vertical magnetic dike like body, infinitely deep, striking north to determine its width and depth from the surface. Fourier transform of the functional representative of the theoretical magnetic anomaly for such a body has been obtained. By framing amplitude response curves, the parameters were estimated.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present the formulations which can be used in calculating reflection and transmission coefficients when the rigidity in the core is taken into consideration, and the theoretical curves are used as a guide for studies of the physical parameters of the core-mantle boundary.
Abstract: The aim of this paper is to present the formulations which can be used in calculating reflection and transmission coefficients when the rigidity in the core is taken into consideration. The theoretical curves presented can be used as a guide for studies of the physical parameters of the core-mantle boundary. It is hoped that these curves may lead to a clarification of the great differences between observed data and theoretical calculations, when the geometrical spreading and attenuation are taken into account.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the correlation coefficients of the electric potential gradient of three year annual hourly and monthly hourly means in GMT and LST and monthly means are computed for over one hundred and seventy-five station pairs.
Abstract: The correlation coefficients of the electric potential gradient of three year annual hourly and monthly hourly means in GMT and LST and monthly means are computed for over one hundred and seventy-five station pairs. In general, low values are found. The validity of the data and analysis are discussed; also the implications of the results on the classical picture of atmospheric electricity.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: To clarify the ionization equilibrium near the ground, simultaneous measurements of the rate of ion pair production (q), the concentrations of small ions and condensation nuclei (Z), and the diffusion coefficient of condensationuclei (D) were carried out at several stations in the central area of Japan.
Abstract: To clarify the ionization equilibrium near the ground, simultaneous measurements of the rate of ion pair production (q), the concentrations of small ions (n) and condensation nuclei (Z), and the diffusion coefficient of condensation nuclei (D) were carried out at several stations in the central area of Japan. The total rate of ion pair production (q) was estimated fromq=q(Rn)+q(Tn)+q(β)+q(γ+CR). The value ofq was estimated as 10J to 20J. The mean life (θ) and the effective attachment coefficient (β) of small ions were also estimated at each station. Correlations amongn, Z, q, andD were also studied. If we take the variation ofD into consideration, the correlation was expressed by the simple formula;q=βn Z. The dependence of β upon size of nuclei (2r) were also measured, and β was found to correlate well withD orr.