Showing papers in "Regional Studies in 2002"
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors argue that clusters are inserted into global value chains in different ways, and that this has consequences for enabling or disabling local-level upgrading efforts, and pay particular attention to the position of developing country firms selling to large, global buyers.
Abstract: Humphrey J. and Schmitz H. (2002) How does insertion in global value chains affect upgrading in industrial clusters?, Reg. Studies 36, 1017–1027. What is the scope for local upgrading strategies where producers operate in global value chains? The literature on industrial clusters emphasizes the role of inter-firm co-operation and local institutions in enabling upgrading. The value chain literature focuses on the role of global buyers and chain governance in defining upgrading opportunities. This paper argues that clusters are inserted into global value chains in different ways, and that this has consequences for enabling or disabling local-level upgrading efforts. It pays particular attention to the position of developing country firms selling to large, global buyers.
2,044 citations
TL;DR: The authors examined the role of human capital, training and education, and entrepreneurial environment on new firm formation and found significant differences in new firms formation rates from industrial regions to technologically progressive regions.
Abstract: While much of the literature on new firm formation in the 1980s was motivated by high levels of unemployment, much of the focus on new firm start-ups today is motivated by high technology. Using a new database we examine the role of human capital, training and education, and entrepreneurial environment on new firm formation. We find significant differences in new firm formation rates from industrial regions to technologically progressive regions. Variations in firm birth rates are explained by industrial density, population and income growth. These results are consistent with thick labour markets and localized knowledge spillovers. Alors que le chomage constituait le principal moteur de la documentation sur la creation d'entreprise dans les annees 80, de nos jours c'est plutot la nouvelle technologie qui en est le moteur. A partir d'une nouvelle base de donnees, cet article cherche a examiner le role du capital humain, de la formation et de l'education, et du milieu propice a la creation d'entreprise. Il ...
869 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors discuss the concept of temporary collaboration in social contexts and propose Cool Projects, Boring Institutions: Temporary Collaboration in Social Context, Vol. 36, No. 3, pp 205-214.
Abstract: (2002). Cool Projects, Boring Institutions: Temporary Collaboration in Social Context. Regional Studies: Vol. 36, No. 3, pp. 205-214.
830 citations
TL;DR: This paper explored interdependencies between projects and firms as well as other more traditional 'permanent forms' of organization, such as agencies, personal ties, localities and corporate networks.
Abstract: In economic geographic analysis, the 'firm' usually is assumed, at least implicitly, as a coherent and unitary economic actor. More recently, however, the integrity of the firm as the basic analytical unit has been undercut by organizational practices which are built instead around 'projects'. By taking up this theoretical challenge, this paper ventures an empirical investigation in which the project features as the central unit of economic action. However, rather than assuming a substitution of the firm by temporary projects, the paper seeks to explore interdependencies between projects and firms as well as other more traditional 'permanent forms' of organization. Against the empirical background of the London advertising industry, the paper delves into the interrelation between projects on the one hand and, on the other, the agencies, personal ties, localities and corporate networks which provide essential sources for project-based organizing. By consecutively embedding projects into these different org...
614 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors identify the existence of four distinct growth regimes: the entrepreneurial regime, the routinized regime; the revolving door regime; and the declining regime, and conclude that diverse growth regimes exist across both time and space.
Abstract: This paper seeks to shed new light on the policy debate about whether regional economic development policy should be targeted towards fostering new firm start-ups or nurturing large, incumbent enterprises. We extend the concept of technological regimes for innovative activity in the industrial economics literature to develop a concept of growth regimes for the unit of observation of regions. Based on data for 74 regions in West Germany over a two-decade period, we identify the existence of four distinct growth regimes: the entrepreneurial regime; the routinized regime; the revolving door regime; and the declining regime. The empirical evidence suggests that no single type of regime accounts for growth. Rather, regional growth can result in regions focusing on large enterprises or new enterprises. Thus, we conclude that diverse growth regimes exist across both time and space. Cet article cherche a eclaircir le debat a propos du role de la politique de developpement economique regional: devrait-elle cibler ...
604 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors focus on the spatial concentration of two essential factors of production in the commercial field of biotechnology: ideas and money, and find that the location of both research-intensive biotech firms and the venture capital firms that fund them is highly clustered in a handful of key US regions.
Abstract: This paper focuses on the spatial concentration of two essential factors of production in the commercial field of biotechnology: ideas and money. The location of both research-intensive biotech firms and the venture capital firms that fund biotech is highly clustered in a handful of key US regions. The commercialization of a new medicine and the financing of a high-risk start-up firm are both activities that have an identifiable timeline, and often involve collaboration with multiple participants. The importance of tacit knowledge, face-to-face contact, and the ability to learn and manage across multiple projects are critical reasons for the continuing importance of geographic propinquity in biotech. Over the period 1988-99, more than half of the US biotech firms received locally-based venture funding. Those firms receiving non-local support were older, larger and had moved research projects further along the commercialization process. Similarly, as venture capital firms grow older and bigger, they invest...
529 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors explore the role of institutional thickness for the performance of project networks in television content production in two media regions in Germany and find that institutional thickness is correlated with the growth and viability of projects.
Abstract: Project networks are an organizational form of production and exchange among functionally interdependent but legally autonomous firms and individuals. Although these networks are of limited duration, co-ordination of actors and activities takes place with respect to past experiences and future expectations. Project networks depend on supportive institutions in the surrounding organizational field to provide the regulative and normative resources within which practices are given meaning. In this paper, we explore the role of 'institutional thickness' for the performance of project networks in television content production in two media regions in Germany. We use GIDDENS', 1984, structuration perspective, to emphasize the dynamics and ambiguities of institutional processes. The analysis suggests that the two media regions differ in institutional thickness in ways which explain, at least in part, differences in the growth and viability of project networks. Les reseaux de projet constituent une forme organisat...
351 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a reinterpretation of the economic geography of the so-called new Hollywood is presented, and the authors argue that the Hollywood production system is deeply bifurcated into two segments comprising: (1) the majors and their cohorts of allied firms on the one hand; and (2) the mass of independent production companies on the other.
Abstract: Scott A. J. (2002) A new map of Hollywood: the production and distribution of American motion pictures, Reg. Studies 36, 957–975. In this paper, I offer a reinterpretation of the economic geography of the so-called new Hollywood. The argument proceeds in six main stages. First, I briefly examine the debate on industrial organization in Hollywood that has gone on in the literature since the mid-1980s, and I conclude that the debate has become unnecessarily polarized. Second, I attempt to show how an approach that invokes both flexible specialization and systems-house forms of production is necessary to any reasonably complete analysis of the organization of production in the new Hollywood. Third, and on this basis, I argue that the Hollywood production system is deeply bifurcated into two segments comprising: (1) the majors and their cohorts of allied firms on the one hand; and (2) the mass of independent production companies on the other. Fourth, I reaffirm the continuing tremendous agglomerative attracti...
253 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors explore the variety of regional innovative patterns in Italy and assess whether innovation systems can be found, and how they operate, at a sub-national scale, based on an in-depth analysis of the data provided by the first Community Innovation Survey (CIS).
Abstract: The empirical target of this article is two-fold: exploring the variety of regional innovative patterns in Italy; and assessing whether innovation systems can be found, and how they operate, at a sub-national scale. The empirical analysis is based on an in-depth analysis of the data provided by the first Community Innovation Survey (CIS). The article shows that the traditional north-south distinction does not give full account of the wider spectrum of regional patterns in Italy. In particular, regional innovative patterns differ not only according to the specific strategies and technological performances of firms, but also according to the relevance of systemic interactions and the presence of contextual factors favourable to innovation. However, proper regional systems of innovation are found only in a few well-defined areas. In most regions, systemic interactions and knowledge flows between the relevant actors are simply too sparse and too weak to reveal the presence of systems of innovation at work.
185 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors argue that foreign investors are inclined to favor such locations that could minimize information costs and offer a variety of agglomeration economies, and further research directions are discussed at the end.
Abstract: He C. (2002) Information costs, agglomeration economies and the location of foreign direct investment in China, Reg. Studies 36, 1029–1036. Foreign investors suffer from adverse information asymmetry and face internal and external uncertainties in host economies. Better access to information and a variety of agglomeration economies could attenuate the disadvantages that foreign investors encounter. Statistical results strongly buttress the argument that foreign investors are inclined to favour such locations that could minimize information costs and offer a variety of agglomeration economies. Theoretical and policy implications and further research directions are discussed at the end. 1 This paper was presented at the 63rd Annual Meeting of the Association of Pacific Coast Geographers, Sept. 13–16, 2000, Arcata, CA.
183 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigate the innovation process in the New York City Garment District's women's wear industry and analyze the ways in which designers have been able to exploit innovative ideas from an emerging design cluster on the Lower East Side of Manhattan and the role that the district's institutional infrastructure plays in facilitating this process.
Abstract: Employing an evolutionary economics framework, this paper investigates the innovation process in the New York City Garment District's women's wear industry. It analyses the ways in which Garment District designers have been able to exploit innovative ideas from an emerging design cluster on the Lower East Side of Manhattan, and the role that the District's institutional infrastructure plays in facilitating this process. The paper argues that the variety as well as the economic coherence provided by the District's design innovation system underlies its ability to adapt to shifting competitive pressures. A partir de la theorie economique evolutionniste, cet article cherche a etudier le processus d'innovation dans le vetement feminin a New York. On analyse les facons dont les modelistes ont pu exploiter des idees novatrices qui proviennent d'un groupe de modelistes naissant situe a Manhattan dans le Lower East Side, et le role que joue l'infrastructure institutionnelle du district pour faciliter ce processus...
Journal Article•
TL;DR: In this article, the authors identify four groups of theory that seek to explain the relationships between innovation and space: traditional agglomeration theory, networking, learning and new competitiveness theory.
Abstract: This paper identifies four groups of theory that seek to explain the relationships between innovation and space. These are traditional agglomeration theory, networking, learning and new competitiveness theory. Evidence on the last three, most recent theories is sought by analysing the results of comparable surveys of innovative firms in Amsterdam, London, Milan, Paris and Stuttgart. The empirical results show that differences occur in the external relationships between firms and the global economy with respect to specific innovation projects. Broadly speaking the main differences identified show that in regional cities such as Stuttgart and Milan innovative activities are more linked to their regional and national economies than they are in the international world cities such as Paris and London. This suggests that attempts to generalize the network paradigm on industrial production are premature at least as far as innovation is concerned. Conversely, the data demonstrate the significance of trading syste...
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors explore how the innovative performance of small high-tech firms relates to their external networking activities, and whether geographical proximity in their network relations matters, and find that interaction with parties with complementary capabilities such as suppliers and service providers is also associated with high innovative performance.
Abstract: The article explores how the innovative performance of small high-tech firms relates to their external networking activities, and whether geographical proximity in their network relations matters. Data from a small sample of electronics firms and software developers in South East England are used to construct indicators of innovativeness, which are correlated with variables capturing intensity of external interactions and proximity benefits. The regional science base is found to have played a key role in nurturing new high-tech ventures, but science parks had not contributed to this. Interaction with parties with complementary capabilities such as suppliers and service providers is also associated with high innovative performance. However, the findings do not support the current policy fashion of encouraging regional networks revolving around firms in similar business activities and close customer relations.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors focus on the relationship between project forms of organization and new forms of employment, risk and exploitation in magazine publishing, and the ways in which these are embedded in place and social networks.
Abstract: This paper focuses on the relationship between project forms of organization and new forms of employment, risk and exploitation in magazine publishing, and the ways in which these are embedded in place and social networks. It considers the organizational practices of the industry arguing that they represent a form of 'neo-industrial organizing', where, at the blurred boundaries of the 'firm', production is organized as 'project'. Evidence from interviews with 41 magazine industry workers reveals that key amongst the foundational mechanisms of this project form of organization are constructions of project workers as simultaneously highly responsible and insecure. This is brought about through the interplay of asymmetric power relations in highly socialized networks, geographical clustering and the transfer of risk from capital to labour at the margins of the firm. Cet article focalise sur le rapport entre l'organisation de projet et les nouvelles formes d'emplois, de risque et d'exploitation dans l'edition...
Journal Article•
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors used data of US establishments in retail and service industries with low entry barriers to find little or no evidence for the "unemployment push" hypothesis, and found that regions with relatively high unemployment rates do not show relatively strong subsequent increases in the number of establishments across a broad range of industries.
Abstract: Empirical tests of the 'unemployment push' hypothesis that unemployed workers start up new enterprises to a greater extent than employed workers to escape unemployment have produced contradictory results. This is at least partially a consequence of studies neglecting the industrial organization of regions and not incorporating adequate variables to represent market opportunities. Using data of US establishments in retail and service industries with low entry barriers, we find little or no evidence for the 'unemployment push' hypothesis. US regions with relatively high unemployment rates do not show relatively strong subsequent increases in the number of establishments across a broad range of industries. Possible exceptions are used merchandise stores and automotive repair shops. Des tests empiriques de l'hypothese qui affirme que la creation d'entreprise s'explique plutot par les chomeurs que par les actifs occupes afin de permettre aces gens-lade contourner le chomage, ont realise des reultats contradict...
TL;DR: The English devolution project does, however, promise to undermine the Anglocentric narrative of Britishness and open the way to a radically different notion of Britisheness as a culturally diverse and politically devolved polity as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: England remains the 'gaping hole in the devolution settlement'. Debate about how England as a whole should engage with devolution overlooks how regionally fractured England is in terms of culture, society and economic fortunes. The discourse of 'north- south divide' underscores this unevenness. But it is also used to support an often unreflected assumption - by government and regional campaigners - that devolution to the (northern) regions will bring an 'economic dividend'. Equally, assumptions about the capacity of regional devolution to overcome the 'democratic deficit' and introduce more effective governance need a more nuanced evaluation, not least with regard to the (paradoxical) reluctance of a devolving central government to release the levers of power. The English devolution project does, though, promise to undermine the Anglocentric narrative of Britishness and open the way to a radically different notion of Britishness as a culturally diverse and politically devolved polity. L'Angleterre reste '...
TL;DR: In this paper, the output multipliers are derived from the output matrix by taking into account also the final output coefficients, which yields consumption, export and investment multipliers for six European Union (EU) countries.
Abstract: Backward linkages are usually measured using output multipliers as based on the input matrix. Similarly, value-added and import multipliers are derived by additionally using the corresponding primary input coefficients. For measuring forward linkages, input multipliers have been frequently used. Within a 'supply-driven' input-output model, these multipliers are obtained from the output matrix. The present paper extends this notion by taking into account also the final output coefficients. This yields consumption, export and investment multipliers. In an empirical analysis, multipliers are calculated for an intercountry input-output table of six European Union (EU) countries. The multipliers are decomposed into intracountry effects, intercountry spillover effects and intercountry feedback effects. D'habitude, les liens en amont sont mesures a partir des multiplicateurs de production bases sur la matrice des facteurs de production. De la meme maniere, des multiplicateurs de valeur ajoutee et d'importation s...
TL;DR: Brioschi et al. as discussed by the authors analyzed the extent of corporate grouping in the main industrial districts of Emilia Romagna and the reasons for their formation and development, and showed how their evolution in recent years requires rethinking the very concept of industrial district in favour of a unit of analysis capable of grasping the role taken by ownership linkages among firms.
Abstract: Brioschi F., Brioschi M. S. and Cainelli G. (2002) From the industrial district to the district group: an insight into the evolution of local capitalism in Italy, Reg. Studies 36, 1037–1053. The aim of this paper is two-fold: to analyse the extent of corporate grouping in the main industrial districts of Emilia Romagna and the reasons for their formation and development; and to show how their evolution in recent years requires rethinking the very concept of industrial district in favour of a unit of analysis capable of grasping the role taken by ownership linkages among firms. In this respect, we suggest a taxonomy of business groups that brings out the key role played by ‘district groups‘. The choice of Emilia Romagna as our field of investigation is motivated by the fact that in a number of ways the region's industrial system represents a paradigmatic model of local capitalism, combining the large-scale presence of industrial districts with a marked entrepreneurial spirit, strong social cohesion and an ...
TL;DR: The main features of such processes underlying the high level of home rule achieved by the 17 Comunidades Autonomas, when compared to other federal-like systems in the world are analyzed in this article.
Abstract: Since the transition to democracy in the late 1970s, Spain has undergone a process of deep decentralization and an incipient federalization. This article analyses the main features of such processes underlying the high level of home rule achieved by the 17 Comunidades Autonomas , when compared to other federal-like systems in the world. Accommodating Spain's secular diversity appears to be in line with the increasing role of meso life in the process of Europeanization.
TL;DR: In this paper, five perspectives on the meaning of entrepreneurship are considered, as: a function in the economy (with a three-stage model); a new business start-up; an owner-manager of a small business; a set of personal characteristics; and, a form of behaviour.
Abstract: Many national, regional or local policies have been developed to support entrepreneurship both generally and in specific industries related to information and communication technology (ICT). Five perspectives on the meaning of entrepreneurship are considered, as: a function in the economy (with a three-stage model); a new business start-up; an owner-manager of a small business; a set of personal characteristics; and, a form of behaviour. These perspectives have differing implications for policies to promote entrepreneurship. These policies include: predominantly macro-level policies such as economic stability, taxation and regulations; micro-level policies focusing upon advice, training, finance, technology transfer, markets access, physical infrastructure and the characteristics of the locality; and creating an entrepreneurial culture.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors have divided the country into functional economic regions and shopping areas, where most of the inhabitants also work, based on a combination of two algorithms presented in MILJOMINISTERIET (Ministry of Environment and Energy), 1994, and COOMBES et al, 1986, respectively.
Abstract: A functional economic region is a region in which, for example, most of the inhabitants also work It is desirable that the administrative regions follow the functional regions If not, tensions between different administrative regions can arise and planning problems occur As a contribution to the discussion of municipality sizes in Denmark, the author has divided the country into functional economic regions In the case of commuting areas, this has been carried out for two different points in time, ie 1980 and 1995 It is shown that the number of areas has decreased during the period In addition, Denmark is divided into shopping areas, significantly more of which exist than commuting areas The division has been conducted by applying a quite simple algorithm consisting of three steps This is a combination of two algorithms presented in MILJOMINISTERIET (Ministry of Environment and Energy), 1994, and COOMBES et al , 1986, respectively The dependence of the constants inherent in the algorithm is ill
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors explore the evolving nature of agglomeration economies and examine the impact of these changes on the nature of interstate trade and on the structure of the metropolitan economy.
Abstract: The form of agglomeration economies (those internal to the firm as well as those external to it) is reviewed. Consideration is next given to recent changes in the regional (state) economies of the US Midwest, as part of an effort to explore the evolving nature of agglomeration economies. Particular attention is paid to the changing relationship between the establishment and the firm and to radical developments that have affected the transportation sector. The impact of these changes on the nature of interstate trade and on the structure of the metropolitan economy are then examined. There follows a discussion of how agglomeration economies are being supplemented and perhaps replaced by less spatially-constrained advantages. Finally, certain of the more important implications of these various trends are discussed.
TL;DR: This paper examined the evolving pattern of regional governance in the English regions since 1997 and found that only from the middle of 2000 did government policy move beyond the Regional Development Agencies (RDAs) and Regional Chambers established in 1998.
Abstract: The paper examines the evolving pattern of regional governance in the English regions since 1997. Only from the middle of 2000 did government policy move beyond the Regional Development Agencies (RDAs) and Regional Chambers established in 1998. Enhanced funding and budgetary flexibility for RDAs and Chambers combined with a growing debate led by key cabinet ministers raised the prospect of a move towards the long-promised possibility of elected regional assemblies in the run-up to the 2001 general election. Other changes included reforms in the administration of policies for the regions in Whitehall and the emergence of campaigns of civic regionalism. Though Labour's 2001 election manifesto reaffirmed the commitment to providing for elected regional assemblies, the slow progress in giving that commitment legislative form testifies to the deep ambivalence the Labour government has about devolving more powers to the English regions. Cet article cherche a examiner la tendance regionale au regionalisme au Roy...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated the strategic and organizational changes which two major Swiss pharmaceutical companies have implemented in order to respond to the challenges related to a slowing of innovation and increasing oligopolistic rivalry.
Abstract: This paper investigates the strategic and organizational changes which two major Swiss pharmaceutical companies have implemented in order to respond to the challenges related to a slowing of innovation and increasing oligopolistic rivalry. Introducing cross-functional project teams, the companies mainly accelerated the development process. These project teams are overlaying structures which complement the functional and geographical organizational units. Common project teams and steering committees are instruments to manage collaborations between pharmaceutical and biotech companies. This paper argues that project teams change power relations, reflect rationalization efforts and serve to create organizational and cultural proximity which is important to guarantee knowledge flows within and between firms. Cet article examine les changements strategiques et organisationnels mis en oeuvre par deux grandes societes pharmaceutiques suisses afin de relever les defis lies au ralentissement de l'innovation et ala...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors provide a detailed case study of one area - Barrow-in-Furness - where major industrial job losses have co-existed with falling claimant unemployment among men.
Abstract: The debate about the extent of hidden unemployment is central to understanding the contemporary UK labour market. This paper provides a detailed case study of one area - Barrow-in-Furness - where major industrial job losses have co-existed with falling claimant unemployment among men. Using aggregate statistics and new survey evidence, it argues that these trends mask extensive hidden unemployment, especially among men on sickness-related benefits. Comparisons are also made with areas covered by similar surveys. The paper concludes that the claimant and International Labour Organization measures of unemployment both appear deeply flawed in the UK context because of the diversion from unemployment to sickness benefits. Le debat sur l'importance du chomage cache est essentiel a la comprehension du marche du travail contemporain au Royaume-Uni. Cet article cherche a fournir une etude de cas detaillee d'une zone - Barrow-in-Furness - ou d'importantes suppressions d'emplois ont coexiste avec une baisse du nomb...
TL;DR: This article examined the conditions under which firms enter into technology development partnerships with customers, suppliers and other firms, and found that large firms and firms located in major urban centres are more likely to enter into such partnerships.
Abstract: The paper examines the conditions under which firms enter into technology development partnerships with customers, suppliers and other firms. Three conceptual approaches to inter-firm collaboration are examined, namely: transactions costs theory; resource-strategy theories of the firm; and network theory. Drawing upon data collected in a mailed questionnaire survey of US manufacturing establishments in the chemical, electronics and instruments industries, I assess empirically various determinants of inter-firm collaboration in technology development. The empirical work suggests that large firms, and firms located in major urban centres, are more likely to enter into technology development partnerships. Firms located in a specialized industrial agglomeration do not demonstrate a greater propensity toward entering into technology development partnerships with customers, suppliers or other firms. Cet article cherche a examiner les conditions sous lesquelles les entreprises concluent des partenariats technolo...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors discuss the design, implementation and evaluation of a national sample frame for research and education in rural Canada, which is the basis for a multidisciplinary research project using macro-level and fieldwork in 32 systematically selected rural sites.
Abstract: This paper discusses the design, implementation and evaluation of a national sample frame for research and education in rural Canada. The sample is the basis for a multidisciplinary research project using macro-level and fieldwork in 32 systematically selected rural sites. The sites were chosen to provide comparisons on five dimensions of importance to researchers, policy makers and rural citizens. Information collected since the establishment of the project in 1997 is used to evaluate the internal and external validity of the sample frame. This evaluation points to the complex interaction of economic and geographical processes on local conditions and reinforces the value of systematic designs for rural research. Cet article discute de la conception, de la mise en application et de l'evaluation d'un echantillon-type national pour la recherche et l'education dans le Canada rural. Cet echantillon sert de base pour des recherches multi-disciplinaires faites sur le plan macro-economique et sur le terrain dans...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examine how attempts to correct past injustices, and to strengthen local government planning and administration, are to be undertaken through the twin concepts of "development local government" and "integrated development planning".
Abstract: The post-apartheid government in South Africa faces significant challenges in coming to terms with the country's apartheid legacy. In addition, newly adopted principles of democratic participation and civic responsibility have made local government a key focal point for development initiatives. This article examines how attempts to correct past injustices, and to strengthen local government planning and administration, are to be undertaken through the twin concepts of 'development local government' and 'integrated development planning'. Key policy, legal and applied processes associated with these endeavours are detailed, before shifting attention to three case studies of initiatives being taken. The assessment reveals that although innovative, locally-based planning is highly appropriate, there are many practical issues which give cause for concern.