Showing papers in "Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews in 2004"

Application of multi-criteria decision making to sustainable energy planning—A review

Abstract: Multi-Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) techniques are gaining popularity in sustainable energy management. The techniques provide solutions to the problems involving conflicting and multiple objectives. Several methods based on weighted averages, priority setting, outranking, fuzzy principles and their combinations are employed for energy planning decisions. A review of more than 90 published papers is presented here to analyze the applicability of various methods discussed. A classification on application areas and the year of application is presented to highlight the trends. It is observed that Analytical Hierarchy Process is the most popular technique followed by outranking techniques PROMETHEE and ELECTRE. Validation of results with multiple methods, development of interactive decision support systems and application of fuzzy methods to tackle uncertainties in the data is observed in the published literature.

Ejectors: applications in refrigeration technology

Abstract: This paper provides a literature review on ejectors and their applications in refrigeration. A number of studies are grouped and discussed in several topics, i.e. background and theory of ejector and jet refrigeration cycle, performance characteristics, working fluid and improvement of jet refrigerator. Moreover, other applications of an ejector in other types of refrigeration system are also described.

Life cycle impact analysis of cadmium in CdTe PV production

Abstract: This paper describes the material flows and emissions in all the life stages of CdTe PV modules, from extracting refining and purifying raw materials through the production, use, and disposal or recycling of the modules. The prime focus is on cadmium flows and cadmium emissions into the environment. This assessment also compares the cadmium environmental inventories in CdTe PV modules with those of Ni–Cd batteries and of coal fuel in power plants. Previous studies are reviewed and their findings assessed in light of new data.

Increasing renewable energy sources in island energy supply : case study Porto Santo

Abstract: While the energy supply of most islands depends mainly on expensive oil derivatives’ importation, the others are linked by usually a weak electricity grid connection to the mainland. Due to high energy costs the islands are proving to be excellent test beds for the introduction of new technologies, and some islands are trying to become so-called renewable islands, to satisfy their energy demand mainly or entirely from indigenous and renewable sources, thus increasing the security of supply, and employment opportunities, without necessarily increasing the costs. Islands that have energy sources, such as hydro or geothermal energy, can easily integrate them into the power system, but those with mainly intermittent renewable energy sources are confronted with the necessity of energy storage. The most promising technologies are reversible hydro where geography allows, and storing hydrogen where it does not. The stored hydrogen can later be used for electricity production, and also for transport. This paper describes the H2RES model for optimisation of integration of hydrogen usage with intermittent renewable energy sources on the example of an isolated island in the Madeira archipelago, Porto Santo. It shows that it is possible to significantly increase the penetration of renewable energy sources, albeit at a relatively high cost, with hydrogen storage technology. The H2RES model, which includes reversible hydro and batteries as storage technologies, can serve as a valuable tool for island energy planning.

Sustainable small-scale CHP technologies for buildings: the basis for multi-perspective decision-making

Abstract: Generally speaking, the concept “small-scale CHP” (combined heat and power) means combined heat and power generation systems with electrical power less than 200 kW. The significant benefit of CHP is its overall efficiency, which can be as much as 85–90%. One of the most promising targets in the application of CHP lies in energy production for buildings. The most important competing technologies in this regard are reciprocating engines, micro-turbines, Stirling engines, and fuel cells. The benefit of these technologies is their ability to utilize sustainable fuels, like regenerative biomass, which makes them attractive. In spite of many technical and economic obstacles limiting the availability and feasibility of these technologies at the moment, the literature is optimistic about their future. The breakthrough of new technology is often regarded simply as a matter of decision-making. This article is a general review of issues that can be supposed to influence decisions when considering small-scale CHP as an alternative energy source for buildings. Firstly, a brief review is presented concerning the political, economic, social, and technological environment of small-scale energy production. Obstacles limiting the market potential of the new technologies are then listed, and solutions are suggested to improve their potential in Europe’s liberalizing energy market. The relevant interest groups influencing decisions both for and against the introduction of the new technologies, as well as their status are recognized. Finally, the advantages and disadvantages of relevant small-scale CHP technologies are briefly discussed, with respect to building energy generation. Finland’s role in this study is emphasized, but the international perspective is also dealt with.

A review on the development of wind energy in Turkey

Abstract: Achieving sustainable development is a target that is now widely seen as important to worldwide public opinion. In this regard, the utilization of renewable energy resources, such as solar, geothermal, and wind energy, appears to be one of the most efficient and effective ways in achieving this target. Recently, wind power as a potential energy has grown at an impressive rate in Turkey. This paper reviews the development of wind energy in the country as of the end of October 2003, including its history, studies conducted on wind energy, restructuring of the Turkish electricity market and wind energy applications. Turkey’s total theoretically available potential for wind power may be around 88,000 MW annually, with particularly attractive areas for wind located along Turkey’s west coast and in southeastern Anatolia. Electricity generation through wind energy for general use was first realized in Izmir, Turkey in 1986 with a 55 kW nominal wind energy capacity. However, the utilization of wind energy in Turkey has increased since 1998 when the first wind power plant with a total capacity of 1.5 MW was installed. Up to date, three wind power plants were installed with a total capacity of 18.9 MW, while a wind power plant with a total capacity of 1.2 MW will be commissioned in November 2003. Present applications have shown that wind energy in Turkey is a promising alternative and the strong development of wind energy is expected to continue in the coming years following restructuring of the Turkish electricity market.

A review on the development and commercialization of biomass gasification technologies in China

Abstract: With the fast economic growth, the energy demand in China has increased two-fold in the past three decades. Various energy resources have been exploited and utilized and biomass is one of the energy resources that is abundant and has been widely used in China for a long time. Biomass gasification is an efficient and advanced technology for extracting the energy from biomass and has received increasing attention in the energy market. In this paper the development of biomass gasification for various energy applications in China is reviewed and their prospects are discussed. Among the different biomass gasification technologies, biomass gasification and power generation is found to be the most promising biomass gasification technology that has great potential to be further developed in China.

The state of the art of small-scale pellet-based heating systems and relevant regulations in Sweden, Austria and Germany

Abstract: The emphasis of this report is on the actual technology of small-scale pellet combustion units and important regulations concerning emissions and pellets. Wood as a heating source has a long tradition in Sweden, but the use of compressed wood pellets in domestic stoves and boilers is rather new. Based on a literature survey, information from manufacturers and test institutes, this report gives an overview about existing technology and investigates how mature it is already. Some comparisons were made to similar heating units in Austria, where this technique is also widely used. It could be seen that the Austrian boilers are more sophisticated including a high level of comfort for the user. On the other hand the simpler Swedish boilers are significantly less expensive, and it is questionable if Swedish costumers are willing to pay for the higher comfort. Relevant regulations concerning emissions and fuel quality are also reported and compared between Sweden, Germany and Austria. In addition some interesting non-official certificates and environmental labels are presented. These give an outlook to future, probably more stringent, regulations.

Development of geothermal energy utilization in Turkey: a review

Abstract: Renewable energy is accepted as a key source for the future, not only for Turkey but also for the world. Turkey has a considerably high level of renewable energy sources that can be a part of the total energy network in the country. Turkey is located in the Mediterranean sector of Alpine–Himalayan Tectonic Belt and has a place among the first seven countries in the world in the abundance of geothermal resources. The share of its potential used is, however, only about 2–3%. The main objective of the present study is to review the development of geothermal energy (GE) utilization in Turkey, giving its historical development and opportunities. GE is used for electric power generation and direct utilization in Turkey, which is among the first five countries in the world in geothermal direct use applications. Direct use of geothermal resources has expanded rapidly last 36 years from space heating of single buildings to district heating, greenhouse heating, industrial usage, modern balneology and physical treatment facilities. Turkey presently has one operating geothermal power plant, located near Denizli City in Western Anatolia with an installed capacity of 20.4 MWe and an electrical energy production of 89,597 MW h in 2001. Recently, the total installed capacity has reached 820 MWt for direct use. The total area of geothermal heated greenhouses exceeded over 35 ha with a total heating capacity of 81 MWt. Ground-source (or geothermal) heat pumps (GSHPs) have also been put on the Turkish market since 1998. Though there are no Turkish GSHP manufactures as yet, 207 units have been installed in the country to date, representing a total capacity of 3 MW. GE is a relatively benign energy source, displaying fossil fuels and thus reducing greenhouse gas emissions. So, it is expected that GE development will significantly speed up in the country if the geothermal law becomes effective.

The analysis of wind data and wind energy potential in Kutahya, Turkey

Abstract: The wind energy is one of the most significant and rapidly developing renewable energy sources in the world and it provides a clean energy resource, which is a promising alternative in the short term in Turkey. The wind energy potential in various parts of Turkey is becoming economical due to reductions in the wind turbine costs, and in fossil fuel atmospheric pollution. Because of this, it is necessary to make use of this resource immediately and start conducting the required technical and economical feasibility research. The main purpose of this paper is to present, in brief, wind potential in Turkey and to perform an investigation on the wind energy potential of Kutahya. Therefore, in this study, a wind observation station was established at Dumlupinar University Main Campus in order to figure out the wind energy potential in the province. Topographical and wind speed measurement data have been collected as a first step. The wind speed has been measured at the 10th and 30th meters of the measurement mast for 20 months. The data collected in this observation station between July 2001 and February 2003 have been evaluated via CALLaLOG 98 and ALWIN software programs. The wind energy potential of the location has been studied based on the Weibull and the Rayleigh models. Weibull approximation was found to be better than that of Rayleigh model.

Bioresource status in Karnataka

Abstract: Energy is a vital component of any society playing a pivotal role in the development. Post oil crises shifted the focus of energy planners towards renewable resources and energy conservation. Biomass is one such renewable, which accounts for nearly 33% of a developing country’s energy needs. In India, it meets about 75% of the rural energy needs. In Karnataka, non-commercial energy sources like firewood, agricultural residues, charcoal and cow dung account for 53.2%. The energy released by the reaction of organic carbon (of bioresources) with oxygen is referred to as bioenergy. Bioresource availability is highly diversified and it depends on the region’s agroclimatic conditions. Inventorying of these resources is required for describing the quality, quantity, change, productivity, condition of bioresources and requirement in a given area. The present study assesses bioresource status across the agroclimatic zones of Karnataka, considering the bioenergy availability (from agriculture, horticulture, forests and plantations) and sector-wise energy demand (domestic, agriculture, industry, etc.). Bioresource availability is computed based on the compilation of data on the area and productivity of agriculture and horticulture crops, forests and plantations. Sector-wise energy demand is computed based on the National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO study) data, primary survey data and from the literature. Using the data of bioresource availability and demand, bioresource status is computed for all the agroclimatic zones. The ratio of bioresource availability to demand gives the bioresource status. The ratio greater than one indicates bioresource surplus zones, while a ratio less than one indicates scarcity. The study reveals that the central dry zone (1.4), the hilly zone (3.79), the southern transition zone (3.12) and the coastal zone (3.40) are bioresource surplus zones, whereas the northeastern transition zone (0.48), northeastern dry zone (0.23), northern dry zone (0.58), eastern dry zone (0.39), southern dry zone (0.93) and northern transition zone (0.45) come under bioresource-deficient zones. Among the bioresource surplus zones, horticulture residues contribute significantly towards bioenergy in the central dry zone, southern transition zone and the coastal zone, while in the hilly zone the main contributor of bioenergy are agricultural residues. Amidst the bioresource-deficient zones, agriculture is the major contributor of bioenergy in the northeastern transition zone (52%), northern dry zone (59%), and northern transition zone. Based on the bioenergy status of the zones and land use pattern, feasible management and technical options have been discussed, which help in optimising the available bioenergy and in building a sustainable energy society. This study also explores various programmes that can be initiated and implemented like social, community and joint forest management involving public participation. Such schemes will lessen the burden on the existing resources and also help the rural masses to procure biomass on a sustained basis.

Spanish method of visual impact evaluation in wind farms

Abstract: The present Spanish laws on the procedure to evaluate the environmental impact of wind farms are ambiguous, especially those pertaining to visual impact. There is no specific national law but only regional laws. The main targets of these laws are the conservation of the environment (protected animals and plants), and the noise generated. The focus of this paper, the visual impact, is not taken into account in a direct way in these laws. This work develops a methodology to predict, before its construction, the visual impact that a wind farm can have. This could be used as a consulting tool to analyze and evaluate wind projects, both government-run and private. The developed methodology is quick, concise and clear.

Power sector reform in small island developing states: what role for renewable energy technologies?

Abstract: Due to various pressures and desires more and more developing countries embark on power sector reform programmes. Yet, there are a wide range of reform options and at present insufficient evidence is available as to which path will deliver best the desired objectives. Presently, most Small Island Developing States (SIDS) are dependent on high-cost fossil fuel imports for power generation. In spite of evidence that harnessing abundant domestic renewable sources of energy can deliver environmental, social and economic benefits. However, depending on the type of power sector reform the transition towards renewable energy technologies (RETs) can be either undermined or facilitated. The specific focus on SIDS is justified because they have inherent characteristics that limit the degree to which the power sector can be transformed in comparison to larger continental developing countries. With specific reference to SIDS this manuscript reviews the drivers and desires for power sector reform, as well as presenting the available reform options and their implications on the up-take of RETs. In addition to elaborating aspects of market governance, other barriers to the consideration of RETs, such as financial bias in investment, human capacity and environmental policy are discussed. In view of this discussion, which is based on evidence from recent reform programmes and theoretical academic literature, recommendations are formulated that discourage full privatisation of the power sector, as well as proposing less dogmatic lending conditions by international assistance bodies.

Current utilization and future prospects of emerging renewable energy applications in Canada

Abstract: Canada has vast renewable energy resources due to its extensive geography and traditionally they have played an important role, particularly prior to the turn of the 20th century. Public interest in new renewable energy technologies (RETs) emerged and grew during the oil shocks of the 1970s and early 1980s. Even though many Canadian provinces had been deriving most of their electricity from hydroelectric power, the first oil crises of the 1970s ignited a strong interest in all forms of renewable energy. Though Canada has huge prospects for low-impact RETs, it is falling behind most industrialized nations in the expansion of these technologies due to a lack of supporting market structures and the absence of appropriate government policies and initiatives. This review focuses on only applications of low-impact emerging RETs that refer to wind, solar, small hydro, geothermal, marine and modern biomass energy. Today, these technologies are mostly in the dissemination, demonstration and early stage of commercialization phase in Canada and currently they contribute less than 1% of the total primary energy consumption. It is evident from the past experience of Europe and Japan that environmentally benign RETs can contribute significantly toward Canada's Kyoto target of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by displacing the use of conventional fossil fuels, and help Canada take an essential step toward a sustainable energy future. In this paper, the current energy utilization scenario of Canada has been analyzed and an array of emerging RET applications has been presented under the category of: (i) green power technologies; (ii) green heat technologies; and (iii) green fuel technologies.

Geothermal energy in Turkey: the sustainable future

Abstract: Turkey is an energy importing nation with more than half of our energy requirements met by imported fuels. Air pollution is becoming a significant environmental concern in the country. In this regard, geothermal energy and other renewable energy sources are becoming attractive solution for clean and sustainable energy future for Turkey. Turkey is the seventh richest country in the world in geothermal energy potential. The main uses of geothermal energy are space heating and domestic hot water supply, greenhouse heating, industrial processes, heat pumps and electricity generation. The district heating system applications started with large-scale, city-based geothermal district heating systems in Turkey, whereas the geothermal district heating centre and distribution networks have been designed according to the geothermal district heating system (GDHS) parameters. This constitutes an important advantage of GDHS investments in the country in terms of the technical and economical aspects. In Turkey, approximately 61,000 residences are currently heated by geothermal fluids. A total of 665 MWt is utilized for space heating of residential, public and private property, and 565,000 m2 of greenhouses. The proven geothermal heat capacity, according to data from existing geothermal wells and natural discharges, is 3132 MWt. Present applications have shown that geothermal energy is clean and much cheaper compared to the other fossil and renewable energy sources for Turkey.

Progress of electricity from biomass, wind and photovoltaics in the European Union

Abstract: The world market for renewable energies is continuously growing. In particular, the wind energy and photovoltaic markets show yearly growth rates between 20 and over 30% in the last few years. Despite the fact that there are still discrepancies between the European Union and the USA how to deal with climate change, renewable energies will play an important role for the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol and the worldwide introduction of tradable green certificates. Apart from the electricity sector, renewable energy sources for the generation of heat and the use of environmental friendly bio-fuels for the transport sector will become more and more important in the future. This article tries to give an overview about the progress of renewable energies in Europe.

Multi-objective optimization in energy systems: the case study of Lesvos Island, Greece

Abstract: The process of decision-making determines the choice of a possible course of action amongst a wide variety of available alternatives. The difficult point in decision-making is the multiplicity of the criteria set for judging the alternatives. The decision maker needs to attain more than one objective in achieving the final goal set, while satisfying constraints dictated by the environment, processes and resources. A multi-objective optimization methodology is applied on the island of Lesvos, Greece, where various renewable energy sources (RES) can be found and could be exploited to satisfy part of the needs of the island’s economy. These resources must be examined from all aspects and a case study is performed for Lesvos that involves application of specific mathematical tools that will lead to a set of energy solutions (Pareto set). These solutions will concern the use of various energy sources that will satisfy a multiplicity of criteria (environmental, demand, cost and resource constraints). The research for this mathematical model has led to the creation of a system with two objective functions that work reversely. Considering the existing constraints, a series of solutions is derived providing decision makers the flexibility to choose the appropriate solution with respect to the given situation.

Comparing the risk profiles of renewable and natural gas-fired electricity contracts

Abstract: Electricity policymakers, industry participants, analysts, and even consumers have become acutely aware of the ever-present risks that face the delivery of electricity Recent instability in the electricity industry illustrates the need for thoughtful resource planning to balance the cost, reliability, and risk of electricity supply This article evaluates the relative risk profiles of renewable and natural gas generating plants It does so by analyzing how six different risks are allocated and, if possible, mitigated in long-term power purchase contracts, taking as a contract sample 27 agreements signed by the California Department of Water Resources in 2001 This assessment illustrates some of the significant differences between the risk profiles of natural gas-fired and renewable generation Renewable energy contracts are shown to provide the most value relative to natural gas-fired contracts by mitigating fuel price and environmental compliance risks Gas-fired electricity contracts typically provide better protection against short-term demand risk When it comes to fuel supply, performance, and regulatory risks, the relative value of renewable and gas-fired contracts is ambiguous We conclude that a better understanding of risks and risk allocation practices will help utilities, regulators, and others make more objective decisions in the future when selecting between renewable and gas-fired electricity supply

An analysis of the Greek photovoltaic market

Abstract: The number of photovoltaic applications has increased slightly over the last 10 years in Greece, with a forecasted 40% increase in the annual rate of sales over the next few years, a target similar to the rest of the EU Member States. This article: (i) presents an analysis of the current situation on the photovoltaic market in Greece and attempts to segment this market; (ii) investigates the existing incentives policy, as well as the crucial barriers for the wide dissemination of the photovoltaic applications, and (iii) records the market actors’ aspects and predictions for the future. Furthermore, in order to supply essential information for business development, the current investment and legislative framework is presented.

Biofuel use and its emission of noxious gases in rural China

Abstract: This article discusses biomass resources and its consumption in China’s farming area. In 2000, the annual yield of crop-straw was about 6900 Mt, of which 54% could be used as a source of energy. The reasonable supply of firewood was about 150 Mt. The total consumption of biofuel in China’s rural area was 219 Mtce, among which crop-straw and firewood accounted for 44 and 56%, respectively. The proportion of the available heat from commercial energy over the total available heat consumed in the countryside was 0.513, and biofuel consumption decreases 3.8% annually. China is at a transition point from a period of non-commercial energy to a period of commercial energy being the main source of energy. This article discusses the effect of the discharge of noxious gases caused by the consumption of biofuel.

Solar energy in Jordan: current state and prospects

Abstract: In this paper, the share of solar energy in the energy mix in Jordan for the years 2002 and 2007 is estimated by calculating the energy equivalent of solar energy systems whether utilized or to be utilized. The share of solar energy in the energy mix in Jordan in the year 2002 is estimated to be around 1.7–1.8%. The expected share of solar energy in the total energy mix in the year 2007 is estimated to be around 2.1%. Assuming that the crude oil prices in the year 2007 is going to be 30 US$ bbl −1 (20 Jordan Dinars ‘JDs’ bbl −1 ), the cost of required primary energy for Jordan will be around 736 million JDs. Thus the 2.1% share of solar energy would save around 16 million JDs per year of imported energy.

Current status and development policies on renewable energy technology research in Taiwan

Abstract: Taiwan is a subtropical island nation with high dependence upon imported energy, about 97% of its energy is supplied by imported fuels. Environmental pollution and greenhouse gas emissions are becoming significant issues in Taiwan. In this regard, renewable energy like bio-gas energy, wind energy and solar energy are thus becoming attractive because the Energy Commission under the Ministry of Economic Affairs and other government energy expenditures pledged about annual US$ 100 millions in total to promote renewable energy and energy conservation based on the renewable energy development policy approved by the Executive Yuan (Cabinet) in January 2002. Also, the Taiwan government announced the ambitious target to achieve about 6500 MW of energy from renewable sources by 2020, which is equivalent to increase Taiwan’s installed capacity of power supply from renewable sources to above 10%. The objective of this paper is to present an updated overview of energy policy from renewable sources in Taiwan, including the government’s organizational response and special funds for supporting renewable energy promotion and technology development. Then, current status of usage and technology development of renewable energy is further addressed in this paper, concentrating on biomass energy, solar energy and wind power. Finally, the paper will focus on some integrated research and development programs to promote renewable energy technology, and summarize two research projects of biofuel energy (i.e. bio-hydrogen production and fast pyrolysis technology from organic wastes) in progress under the joint-funds of the Ministry of Economic Affairs and the National Science Council.

Progress in energy utilization from agrowastes in Taiwan

Abstract: Taiwan is a high energy-importing nation with more than 95% of its energy supplied by imported fuels. Environmental pollution and greenhouse gas emissions are becoming significant environmental issues. In this regard, renewable energy like waste-to-energy are thus becoming attractive due to the energy policy for the sustainable development and environmental pollution mitigation in Taiwan. The objective of this paper is to present an updated overview of energy utilization from mass agrowastes in industries. The description is thus centered on new/revised promotion legislation/regulations especially concerning the agrowaste-to-energy in the measures of environmental protection and economic/financial incentives. The Statute for Renewable Energy Development is being enacted to further enhance and promote the green energy utilization, which is also addressed in the paper. Finally, we present the biomass energy utilization of three mass agrowastes (i.e. bagasse and rice husk from mills, and piggery wastes from swine farms) in progress.

Evaluating the energy utilization efficiency of Turkey’s renewable energy sources during 2001

Abstract: This study evaluates the energy utilization efficiency of Turkey’s renewable energy sources (RESs) during 2001 by using energy and exergy analyses, giving a brief outlook on the utilization of RESs. Total energy and exergy inputs are calculated to be 3203.22 PJ and 3139.07 PJ, while renewable energy and exergy production values are determined to be 428.62 PJ and 395.68 PJ, respectively. Renewable energy is used in the Turkish conversion, residential–commercial and industrial subsectors. The energy and exergy efficiency values for the RESs of Turkey are found to be 49.86% and 24.14% in 2001, respectively. Besides this, total energy and exergy utilization efficiency values for those are obtained to be 45.02% and 24.96% in the same year, respectively. The present study has clearly indicated the necessity of the planned studies towards increasing renewable energy utilization efficiency in the subsectors studied and especially the critical role of policymakers in establishing effective energy-efficiency delivery mechanisms throughout the country. It is also expected that this study will fill a considerably large gap since it is the first attempt towards analyzing Turkey’s renewable energy sources in terms of energy and exergy utilization efficiencies.

Estimating petroleum exergy production and consumption using vehicle ownership and GDP based on genetic algorithm approach

Abstract: This study deals with exergy estimation of petroleum using genetic algorithm (GA) approach. The exergy estimation is carried out based on the gross domestic product (GDP) and the percentage of vehicle ownership figures in Turkey. Genetic Algorithm EXergy Production and Consumption (GAPEX) is developed. During the estimation of petroleum exergy, the GA is combined with time-series approach. For exergy consumption, three forms of the GAPEX are developed, of which one is linear, the second is exponential and the third is quadratic form of the equations. Among them, the best fit models in terms of average relative errors for the testing period are selected for future estimation. It may be concluded that the models proposed here can be used as an alternative solution and estimation techniques for available estimation techniques.

Rural photovoltaic electrification program in Jordan

Abstract: The photovoltaic (PV) technology potential for Jordan is high, based on the fact that many remote and isolated sites are located far away from the national electric grid and cannot be connected to it in the near future. Therefore, a rural PV electrification program—driven by quality-of-life improvement for the users—was launched in Jordan in 2002. An important element of the program is the access of low-income, rural consumers to essential electricity. This paper discusses and analyses the first stage of this program that is the electrification of a remote and small Jordanian village. Nine PV solar home systems (SHS) were installed in this village in order to provide lighting and power for radio and television. Feed back from the users of the installed systems indicates that the PV based electricity has been providing very satisfactory service to the consumers, and that it is an appropriate technology suitable for dissemination in the rural Jordanian areas.

Contribution of fractures to formation and production of geothermal resources

Abstract: Heat, fractures and fluid are the fundamental elements of geothermal resources. From a different viewpoint, existence of natural hydrothermal convection to form convective geothermal resources, and fluid production from wells, are the important factors for geothermal development. Under this circumstance, fractures play two different roles. One is contribution for the onset of the natural convection in geothermal systems, and the other is contribution as flow paths to connect wells to the reservoir for fluid production. Since the inter-fracture ascending velocity of natural convection in geothermal reservoirs is of the order of 10−8 m/s, fractures from very small to very large permeabilities contribute to the first role. However, in-flow velocity of single-phase liquid within fractures in the vicinity of the well face ranges from 10−1 to 101 m/s for example. Thus, only fractures of very high permeability can contribute to the second role. Therefore, one should always note the roles of fractures when discussing permeability in geothermal reservoirs.

Investigation of the potential of wind–waves as a renewable energy resource: by the example of Cesme—Turkey

Abstract: There are opinions claiming that 70% of the world energy consumption could be provided from renewable resources by the year 2050. These resources are needed, because fossil fuels both cause pollution of the environment and will be depleted in the near future. In this regard, the objective of this study was to determine the wave energy potential and the costs associated with its application to Turkish waters. To this goal, the wave energy potential in Cesme–Izmir was investigated. Cesme is known to have abundant wind, which plays the primary role in the formation of sea waves. For this purpose, the Solar Energy Institute of Ege University carried out wind velocity measurements within the period from 05.11.1998 to 05.11.1999 at an altitude of 10 m in Cesme. The measured values were regarded as if they were taken at an altitude of 19.5 m from seawater level. With this approach, the Pierson–Moskowitz wave energy spectrum was constructed. Through this wave energy spectrum, wave energy that is to be obtained at the measurement area within one year was determined. The variation of wave energy according to each month was evaluated. Hence, the unit cost of electricity to be produced by a turbine (with a width of 1 m), assumed to be installed at the area of measurements, was calculated.

Approaching the Kyoto targets: a case study for Basilicata region (Italy)

Abstract: Approaching the national Kyoto Protocol (KP) targets involves a re-definition of the actual configuration of local energy systems. This study deals with a local scale application of the IEA-MARKAL models generator, in which the anthropogenic system of Basilicata Region (Southern Italy) is investigated to support the definition of coherent long-term strategies and sound climate protection policies. A scenario by scenario analysis points out the behaviour of the optimal mix of fuels and technologies in the presence of carbon dioxide emissions constraints. Trade off curves and reduced costs analyses outline the most effective actions for contributing to the national KP targets, with particular emphasis on the interventions in Civil (Residential, Commercial & Services) and waste management sectors.

Segmentation of the Indian photovoltaic market

Abstract: This paper provides an analytical framework studying the actors, networks and institutions and examines the evolution of the Indian Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Market. Different market segments, along the lines of demand and supply of PV equipment, i.e. on the basis of geography, end-use application, subsidy policy and other financing mechanisms, are detailed. The objective of this effort is to identify segments that require special attention from policy makers, donors and the Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources. The paper also discusses the evolution of the commercial PV market in certain parts of the country and trends in the maturity of the market.