Showing papers in "Review of Educational Research in 1971"

Student Ratings of College Teaching: Reliability, Validity, and Usefulness

Abstract: The past several years have seen a striking increase in attempts to evaluate college teaching. Included in this demand for evaluation has been the widespread use of formal student appraisal of courses and instructors. Several years ago, an extensive survey by Gustad (1961) into the methods of teacher evaluation used by 584 colleges and universities revealed that student ratings were cited most often. More recently, however, Gustad (1967) reported a "substantial decline" in the systematic use of student ratings, although he also found that "informal" student opinions of teaching as well as evaluations by deans and chairmen of departments were frequently used. He suggested that the decline in the use of student ratings was due to the lack of convincing validity data. However, perceived threat to faculty may also be an important cause, since in recent years a strong impetus to use student ratings has come from the students themselves (Werdell, 1967).

The Development of Aggression

Abstract: 1. Under what circumstances does the individual acquire a predisposition to be aggressive? 2. By what processes does the individual acquire aggressive responses? 3. What conditions appear to elicit these responses? Studies of aggression have indicated the importance of three factors which contribute to the instigation, learning, and performance of such behaviors: (a) frustration, as experienced through punitiveness, restrictiveness, and rejection; (b) modeling of aggressive figures in the environment; (c) norms or reinforcement contingencies surrounding aggressive action.

The Effects of Tests on Students and Schools

Abstract: The development of standardized tests in the United States has produced a situation unique in history. Never before has a society so conscientiously sought to evaluate the abilities and characteristics of its members. Our society has sought not only to evaluate but also to provide each member with opportunities in accordance with these evaluated abilities and characteristics. To implement this policy, the nation has given to the schools the primary responsibility for sorting and training its manpower. The schools have done this by turning to standardized tests, particularly since World War I.

An Analysis of Curriculum Policy-Making

Abstract: Any organization or institution with purposes of its own develops policies-"a body of principles to guide action [Lerner & Lasswell, 1951, p. ix]"-for dealing with recurring or crucial matters. Schools normally formulate policies on a variety of matters including promotion of students, grading, grouping of students for instruction, and dress for students. Schools also implement policies formulated by other bodies, most notably policies of the district administration, the state and local board of education, and the U. S. Congress. The policies executed by schools include specifically educational policies as well as others which, while they may have educational aspects, are not unique to schools or even characteristic of them. Among the most important of the specifically educational policies of schools are those pertaining to what children study in school. Children in school are normally required to study certain subjects and forbidden to study others, encouraged to pursue some topics and discouraged from pursuing others, provided with opportunities to study some phenomena but not provided with the means of studying others. When these requirements and pressures are uniformly and consistently operative they amount to policy, whether we intended so or not. We shall call such explicit or implicit "guides to action" curriculum policy and the process of arriving at such policy we shall call curriculum policymaking.

Atkinson’s Theory of Achievement Motivation: First Step Toward a Theory of Academic Motivation?

Abstract: Educators generally agree that a major variable affecting classroom performance is motivation. However, important as motivational variables may be in understanding, predicting, and controlling classroom behavior, there is a paucity of information and theory associated with them. There are many theories of human motivation; but little attempt has been made to extend these theories in a systematic way to educational situations. Furthermore, the occasional application of psychological theory to education has not typically eventuated in a theory of academic motivation nor a unified and coherent body of information. As a result, there is very little in the way of motivation theory which is clearly of help to the classroom teacher or to education in general. The situation is not without hope, however. The work of several theorists has shown promise of evolving postulates and hypotheses relevant to the teaching-learning process. Prominent among these is the theory of achievement motivation, particularly as formulated by Atkinson (1957, 1964, 1965; Atkinson & Feather, 1966).1 This theory has provided a productive approach to a variety of behavioral phenomena; thus it has been suggested (e.g., Atkinson, 1966; Weiner, 1967) that it may also give direction to educationally relevant research. Can it indeed serve as a first step toward a theory of academic motivation? It is the goal of this paper to consider that question.

Self-Concept and the “Disadvantage” of Ethnic Group Membership and Mixture

Abstract: Numerous studies have found self-concept to be significantly related to academic achievement for so-called "disadvantaged" as well as other students (e.g., Brookover & Thomas, 1963; Campbell, 1965; Coleman, 1966; Meyers, 1966; Caplin, 1968; Paschal, 1968; Epps, 1969; Frerichs, 1970). Is has also become increasingly clear in the light of the schools' attempt to serve the disadvantaged that the schools have a fundamental responsibility to enhance the self-concepts of their students (Clark, 1963; Tannenbaum, 1967; Marston, 1968). This objective has been prescribed and described for virtually all programs for the disadvantaged (Gordon & Wilkerson, 1966; Smiley, 1967; Fantini & Weinstein, 1968). A low self-concept has been cited as one of the major characteristics of the disadvantaged (Gordon, 1965; Havighurst & Moorefield, 1967). Whether or not such a "disadvantage" exists and persists depends largely on the relationship between self-concept and ethnic group membership and mixture.

Learning, Race, and School Success

Abstract: At virtually every grade level, differences in the degree of school success attained vary with a number of student characteristics such as ethnicity, socioeconomic status (SES), and IQ; i.e, school success depends on a variety of factors other than ability to learn. It has been established that white children are more successful in school than black children, high-SES children succeed more often than low-SES children, and high-IQ children succeed more often than low-IQ children. The problem for educational research is to answer the question, "Why does school success depend more directly on ethnicity, SES, and IQ than on the ability to learn?" The question is obviously an important and deeply intriguing one. It is tempting to enumerate possible answers hastily and vigorously; however, such a response is premature. There is a necessary prior task-to establish the case that the question is based in valid assumptions and that it is properly phrased. Indeed, the burden of this paper is precisely to present a brief for this case. Many would disagree with both the assumptions and the phrasing of the question; such misgivings have considerable justification. For example, both evidence and beliefs support the notion that IQ is an index of learning ability. If this notion is valid, it makes nonsense of the statement that school success depends on IQ more than on learning ability. Consider also the quandary presented by the fact that IQ is frequently used as a measure of the effectiveness of schooling. Intelligence test performance is the most pervasively used method for evaluating the effectiveness of preschool programs for disadvantaged children. If IQ is a valid measure of the efficacy of schooling, then the statement that school success depends on IQ is trivial at best. Both of these examples demand a closer examination of the question with which we started: "Why does school success depend more directly on ethnicity, SES, and IQ than on learning ability?" First, consider the term school success. Although success in school can be variously defined, it is used here to refer primarily to performance on standardized tests of school achievement and secondarily to evaluations of

School Achievement and Delinquency

Abstract: Behavorial scientists have long concerned themselves with seeking explanations for juvenile delinquency. While etiology has been attributed to parental relationships, mental deficiency, etc., the educational system has been largely absolved. Probably there are many reasons why a child commits-and gets caught committing-an antisocial or asocial act. At least some of those reasons may be partially or wholly related to his educational experience.

Mathematical Programming Models in Educational Planning

Abstract: During the past few years there has been a rapid development of the field called management science which should not be confused with the older tradition of "scientific management" in the sense of time and motion studies (Fox, 1967). Management science models which express the organizational environment and its dynamics in mathematical relationships have been applied in the fields of business management, military operations research, public welfare and regional planning. Although the value of such models has been demonstrated in the areas listed above, educational administrators and planning specialists appear to be making little use of these scientific approaches.

Manipulating Incentives to Enhance School Learning.

Abstract: Recently there has been a great deal of interest in the use of incentives to improve academic performance. The flurry of contracts between school systems and private firms, binding the latter to produce specified achievement gains in students in order to be paid for instructional services rendered (Education Turnkey Systems, 1970), has given rise to the notion that outside firms know something about causing students to learn that school personnel do not know. The recent stress on accountability in education (Lessinger, 1970) has also contributed to an interest in incentives. A corollary to accountability is that programs, personnel, or materials and equipment that do not contribute to desired student performance outcomes must face some kind of revision, possibly elimination, while those found effective should be appropriately rewarded (Hawkridge, 1970). Central to the emphasis on incentives is the belief that the new educational programs of the past decade have not produced impressive results and have especially failed the so called "deprived" student. Whereas this failure has produced pessimism in some circles, other educators have thought enough of the power of currently available techniques to venture their own capital on a guaranteed-performance-or-no-pay basis. An examination of these techniques usually reveals a heavy emphasis on technological innovations and "incentives" to learners. The purpose of the present paper is to summarize the research on the use of incentives to influence student performance. Demonstrated principles are identified and areas for further development are indicated. In an attempt to cover the entire range of possibilities for incentive manipulation, the paper focuses on theoretical rationales, types of incentive, target populations, modes of incentive delivery, timing of reinforcements, and criterion measures to assess incentive effectiveness.

Spelling Difficulty—A Survey Of The Research

Abstract: Several general surveys of spelling research already exist. Most include curriculum recommendations based on the research reviewed. Both Hildreth (1955) and Horn (1960, 1969) provided incisive reviews of curriculum-applicable research as well as extremely helpful bibliographies. Betts (1940b) provided an extensive pre-1940 bibliography. Other good reviews were written by Fitzgerald (1951), Peters (1967), Petty (1964), Plessas and Ladley (1965), and Shane and Mulry (1963).

Computer-Based Instructional Management Systems: A First Look

Abstract: A recurring theme in American educational thought has been the individualization of instruction. The durability of this theme is attested to by two yearbooks of the National Society for the Study of Education devoted to this topic that were published nearly four decades apart (Whipple, 1925; Henry, 1962). These two yearbooks reported a wide range of approaches to the individualization of instruction as well as research on individual differences. New approaches to the individualization of instruction often result from technological developments such as tape recorders, teaching machines, etc. Thus, when digital computers became available, it was inevitable that this powerful technology would be employed in attempts to solve the persistent problem of individualization of instruction.

On the Use of Large-Scale Simulations Models for University Planning.

Abstract: It is currently in vogue at many academic institutions to attempt to use large-scale, deterministic, computer models for making detailed predictions of future resource requirements. These were originally conceived as planning tools for examining the effects on departmental faculty, staff, and other resources of changing operating conditions, such as when the disciplinary mix of students is altered or when new academic programs are added to a campus. Examples of such models and suggestions for their application may be found in Judy (1969), Koenig, Keeney, & Zemach (1968), Lawson and Jewett (1969), Ruelfi (1969), Systems Research Group (1969a, 1969b), Turksen and Holzman (1970), Weathersby (1967), Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education (1970), and Zemach (1968). Although these models differ in their particulars, it is their common mathematical structure that is of concern here. We use the generic term \"cost simulation model,\" abbreviated CSM, to refer to any member of this class.

On The Use of Large-Scale Simulation Models for University Planning

Abstract: It is currently in vogue at many academic institutions to attempt to use large-scale, deterministic, computer models for making detailed predictions of future resource requirements. These were originally conceived as planning tools for examining the effects on departmental faculty, staff, and other resources of changing operating conditions, such as when the disciplinary mix of students is altered or when new academic programs are added to a campus. Examples of such models and suggestions for their application may be found in Judy (1969), Koenig, Keeney, & Zemach (1968), Lawson and Jewett (1969), Ruelfi (1969), Systems Research Group (1969a, 1969b), Turksen and Holzman (1970), Weathersby (1967), Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education (1970), and Zemach (1968). Although these models differ in their particulars, it is their common mathematical structure that is of concern here. We use the generic term "cost simulation model," abbreviated CSM, to refer to any member of this class.

Negro Iq Deficit: Failure of a “Malicious Coincidence” Model Warrants New Research Proposals

Abstract: A seemingly persuasive case that existing statistical data on Negro IQ deficits can be explained on a purely environmental basis, without recourse to any genetic differences, has been presented by Light and Smith (1969). Specifically, these investigators employed computer calculations using values for the contributions to variance of IQ consistent with Jensen's Harvard Educational Review article "How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement?" (1969). Light and Smith initially used values of fG = 0.75 and fE = 0.25 for the genetic (G) and environmental (E) contributions to the white population variance. Using these values in conjunction with U.S. Census data on socioeconomic (SES) distribution, they explained a deficit AIQ for Negroes of -8.74, i.e., an average IQ of 91.26 compared to 100 for whites. Light and Smith placed emphasis on an analysis in which a fraction (ft) of the variance was attributed to an "interaction" (I) between environment and heredity. (See Table 2, Equation 5, and Figure 3 for examples of interaction as distinct from simple additivity.) In their 1% interaction case (fl = 0.01, fE = 0.24, fG = 0.75), Light and Smith were able to account for an IQ deficit for Negroes (as compared to whites) of -13.19. For their 10% interaction case (f' = 0.10, fE = 0.15, fG = 0.75), they computed a larger deficit of -17.41, i.e., an average Negro IQ of 82.59. Identical genetic distributions for Negroes and whites were assumed in both cases.

Issues in the Evaluation of Social Programs

Abstract: Efforts in the past decade to reduce the incidence of major social problems have stimulated a new interest in program evaluation. Numerous writings have appeared on the use of the concepts and methods of behavioral research in evaluating these interventions. This paper is a review of that literature. It surveys evaluation programs designed to produce some identifiable change in individual or social groups. The first part of the paper is concerned with basic issues which include definitions, approaches to evaluation methodology, roles of evaluation in program development, and distinctions among various forms of research. The second section deals with organizational matters such as the establishment of the evaluative research role, administration of evaluative research, utilization of the results of evaluation, and implications of client activism for evaluation. The third portion reviews methodological issues in measurement and design of evaluation studies.

The Structure of Human Memory and Some Educational Implications

Abstract: The structural aspects of human memory continue to baffle researchers. There are several issues that investigators have been concerned with, e.g., whether there is a single storage system or a multiple one, the nature of the processing of information that takes place, the invariant features of the memory processes, the role of the individual in the storage of information, etc. An understanding of these issues should aid educators in creating better learning environments. A brief review relating to these aspects is offered here.

School Achievement and Post-School Success: A Review

Abstract: general remedy for improving one's lot in life. As early as the 17th century, the English political economist, Sir William Petty, noted the link between education and income. Indeed, the assumption that education would raise the economic status of the poor was an important factor in the United States in stimulating the universal free-schooling movement of the late 19th century. This same assumption contributed to the enactment of compulsory education laws in the early 20th century. Education came to be looked on as a primary means for keeping American society open and for enabling men to break the social, economic, and political bonds of poverty. The famous American educator, Horace Mann, reflected this tenet when, with uncommon insight for that time, he issued the statement at the head of this page (Mann, 1968). Our purpose in this paper is to explore the link between education, individual opportunity, and individual success. Specifically, we wish to examine the proposition that: the post-school opportunity and performance of a pupil is related to his achievement in school, and the relationship is such that higher achievement is associated with "success" and lower achievement is associated with lack of "success."

Models, Mathematics, and the Moral Obligation to Diagnose the Origin of Negro Iq Deficits

Abstract: This paper is the fifth in a sequence that originated with the controversial article of Arthur R. Jensen (1969). Jensen's methodology was attacked by Richard J. Light and Paul V. Smith (1969). I counterattacked (Shockley, 1971). In this issue Light and Smith (1971) respond and I respond to them here. Thus, five publications are involved: For brevity they are denoted as (1) Jensen, (2) LSI for the first LightSmith attack, (3) SI for Shockley counter-attack, (4) LS2 for L-S counter-counter attack, and (5) S2 for this third order counter-attack. In brief, the issues involved were as follows:

Methods and Problems in the Analysis of Multivariate Data

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to review some methods for analyzing multivariate data in education and psychology and to discuss issues and problems which may often be associated with such analyses. In particular, the concern is with studying complexes of dependent variables with respect to multiple independent variables. Although this review is written chiefly in the language of experimental design, with special focus on analysis of variance methods, the discussion is also generally pertinent to situations where nonexperimental independent variables are under study.

Research on the Psychological-Behavioral Effects of the Physical Environment

Abstract: Goals

Local Demand for Education: A Critique of School Finance and Economic Research CIRCA 1959–1969

Abstract: The citizens of some school districts demand more educational services than the citizens of others. This is a fact of life for most local school administrators. If administrators have time to contemplate this situation at all, they are apt to quickly dismiss it as one of the more unfortunate consequences of the highly decentralized educa­ tional financing system used in this country. Recently, an increased interest in the United States in a goal of equal educational opportunity for all students has made this matter of unequal local district demand very disturbing. Disturbing facts tend to attract educational researchers, and this case has proven no exception.

Labor Education in America

Abstract: flict and compatibility, as well as relative effectiveness. An investigation of trade union education programs can be used by teachers to check the image of labor unions which they are presenting to their students. The study may suggest a necessity for revisions in the treatment of labor in social studies syllabi and in the teaching materials used in conjunction with the syllabi. The study may serve to enlighten social studies teachers about the availability of union education materials for use as primary sources in teaching about organized labor. The legislative enactment of collective bargaining rights for teachers in a growing number of states makes it desirable that teachers and their organizational leaders have a knowledge of the operations by which other organizations have realized their goals under collective bargaining rules. This study supplies a knowledge of some of these operations. The study can provide insights into the educational rationale of trade unions which may be of service to students of education, sociology, political science, or industrial relations. It may constitute a model for the analysis of other forms of social and leadership education. The findings and conclusions of the study might be used by unions in evaluating and improving their educational function. The study also has significance for educators who will be assisting in the development and implementation of union education programs.

Statistical Issues in Social Allocation Models of Intelligence: A Review and A Response

Abstract: In response to the much discussed article by Jensen (1969), "How Much Can We Boost I.Q. and Scholastic Achievement," we presented an argument showing that mean differences in I.Q. scores between ethnic or racial groups could be accounted for by nongenetic factors (Light & Smith, 1969). Shockley (1971) recently discussed our work. His paper developed two main lines of argument. In the first two-thirds of his paper, he criticized our reasoning as leading to results inconsistent with empirically collected data. In the final third of his paper, Professor Shockley departed from our work to consider a wide array of social and political issues surrounding the genetics-educability controversy, with specific reference to mean differences among ethnic groups. We respond in this essay to the statistical questions which Shockley raised. We do not deal with the philosophical or moral issues he raised in the final third of his paper. He has raised these issues elsewhere (see Shockley, 1971, for references), and they do not directly relate to our model or our argument. This response to Shockley's paper is divided into four sections. In the first section, we summarize the approach we took in our original work. We thus describe a "social allocation model" which explains differences between mean I.Q. scores of ethnic groups without resorting to the hypothesis of genetic differences between groups. In the second section, we briefly outline Professor Shockley's criticisms of our procedures. In the third and major portion of this paper, we respond in detail to the statistical issues raised by Shockley in his critique. Finally, in a brief concluding section, we present what we believe are the methodological implications of the disagreement between Professor Shockley and ourselves.

Review of Recent Literature on Figure Drawing Tests as Related to Research Problems in Art Education

Abstract: Empirical research in the field of art education has employed drawings of the human figure to assess variables of drawing ability, perceptual awareness and growth, mental maturity, acculturation, etc. These studies have generally followed the same research methodologies as psychological research using figure drawings. In this paper I review experimental research in psychology in an attempt to identify research problems, and their strengths and weaknesses, which have implications for the use of figure drawings as assessment instruments in art education. Figure drawing tests have been employed historically both in the fields of art education and psychology (Harris, 1963; Koppitz, 1968; Dennis, 1966) to function as (a) nonverbal measures of intelligence, (b) nonverbal measures for the assessment of emotional and personality disorders, (c) means for the assessment of perceptual style, (d) means for the assessment of perceptual growth in art, (e) cross-cultural measures of perceptual style and intelligence, and (f) indicators of a child's level of growth and development in art.