Showing papers in "Review of Educational Research in 1976"
TL;DR: For instance, the authors pointed out that education goals have tended to fluctuate from emphasis solely on cognitive outcomes to major concern with social and affective ones, and that the current trend seems to be moving in its emphasis on "humanistic" aspects of education.
Abstract: Historically, education goals have tended to fluctuate from emphasis solely on cognitive outcomes to major concern with social and affective ones. The emphasis on achievement and the "cult of efficiency" (Callahan, 1962) early in this century was followed by a shift in the 1930's to the comprehensive high school with its social and affective concerns (cf. the Eight Year Study, Aikin, 1942). Then Sputnik initiated a rapid and dramatic reemphasis on cognitive outcomes (Bruner, 1960) from which the current trend seems to be moving in its emphasis on "humanistic" aspects of education. The sharp increase in the number of studies on self-concept is one reflection of the reemphasis on noncognitive outcomes of education. (For references to current educational studies, see reviews by Coller, 1971; Purkey, 1970; Yamamoto, 1972; Zirkel, 1971.) Another symptom of this shift has taken the form of increased concern with enhancing the child's self-concept, espe-
3,600 citations
TL;DR: A comprehensive review of research on attitudes toward mathematics covering the decade of the 1960's was published (Aiken, 1970) and during the five years since that review was written, more dissertations and articles pertaining to this topic have appeared than in the entire preceding ten years.
Abstract: Several years ago, a comprehensive review of research on attitudes toward mathematics covering the decade of the 1960's was published (Aiken, 1970). During the five years since that review was written, more dissertations and articles pertaining to this topic have appeared than in the entire preceding ten years. Because many of these investigations point to interesting new research directions, it seemed important to update the earlier review at this time rather than waiting until the decade of the 1970's has passed. Regardless of the efforts of this writer and others to bring to the educational research community periodic reviews of studies concerned with attitudes and anxiety toward mathematics, many investigators in this area continue to be unaware or unappreciative of previous research on the topic. For example, one recent paper discusses the topic of "mathophobia" as if nothing had been written about its development and measurement (Lazarus, 1974). This oversight is almost certainly due to a failure to search the relevant literature, the first step in any scientific inquiry.
325 citations
TL;DR: In contrast, the experimental psychology of learning and cognition has been almost exclusively a theoretical endeavor, with little effort devoted to application and the design of practical techniques for assisting in the conduct of human affairs as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: It is a well-known historical fact that two major areas of scientific psychology, psychometrics and general experimental psychology, came out of different traditions and have developed in different ways. Psychometrics has become a major technological application of psychology, with primary effort being devoted to practical techniques and less effort to theoretical concerns. In contrast, the experimental psychology of learning and cognition has been almost exclusively a theoretical endeavor, with little effort devoted to application and the design of practical techniques for assisting in the conduct of human affairs. Although practical work has been carried out in educational
286 citations
TL;DR: The causal relationships between particular teacher behaviors and their specific effects on student performance have not yet been established as discussed by the authors for a variety of reasons, such as insufficient warmth, zeal, sensitivity, or perhaps excessive authoritarianism and rigidity.
Abstract: Many educators would agree that teacher "personality" and "mental health" as they are reflected in classroom behavior are important. Some might even consider these characteristics more important than a teacher's knowledge of the subject matter and methods of teaching. Ineffective teaching is often attributed to personality defects, such as insufficient warmth, zeal, sensitivity, or perhaps excessive authoritarianism and rigidity (Smith, 1968). Flanders and Simon (1969), in reviewing the literature on teacher effectiveness, concluded that research is vitally needed on the causal relationships between particular teacher behaviors and their specific effects on student performance. Although something is known about these relationships (e.g., Dunkin & Biddle, 1974; Rosenshine, 1971), research has failed to provide unambiguous data for a variety of reasons. These include the
268 citations
TL;DR: Continuing motivation as mentioned in this paper is defined as the tendency to return to and continue working on tasks away from the instructional context in which they were initially confronted, and it can be seen as a sign that the student has been turned on to seek out learning and educational experiences outside the classroom.
Abstract: One of the more important-but seldom studied-educational outcomes is, what might be termed, continuing motivation. Briefly put, continuing motivation is defined as the tendency to return to and continue working on tasks away from the instructional context in which they were initially confronted. This return is presumably occasioned by a continuing interest in the task and not by external pressure of some kind. Thus, the kindergarten child spends the evening reliving or redoing many of the day's events. Nursery rhymes are repeated again, again-and again! The same figures are redrawn and siblings are coerced to "play school." And, occasionally the 10-year-old will check out a book on Indians after a social studies unit, consult the family library about a point raised in a class discussion, or proceed to turn the family kitchen into a chemistry lab-all without any direct or noticeable pressure from school, teacher, or parent. Something has happened, possibly in the course of the school day, to create a continuing interest in a given activity. The student has been "turned on" to seek out learning and educational experiences outside the classroom. "Continuing motivation" has been created! Seldom, if ever, has educational research focused on such
257 citations
TL;DR: In the preliminary phases of teaching and instruction, a well-organized "bird's-eye-view" of the task supplies the student with a useful perspective of what lies ahead.
Abstract: Organization, it has been argued, is the hallmark of good teaching. The sequencing and arrangement of subject material appears to influence not only what students learn, but also their attitudes towards the usefulness and importance of what has to be achieved. For this reason, any procedure which makes this arrangement or organization more obvious and striking is likely to facilitate the learning of meaningful material. Nowhere is this more important than in the preliminary phases of teaching and instruction. A well-organized "bird's-eye-view" of the task supplies the student with a useful perspective of what lies ahead. It also serves as a framework on which subsequent learning can be
220 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the influence of teacher expectation on teachers' classroom interaction with selected children was discussed. But the authors focused on the early socialization experiences of children and their gender role in middle childhood.
Abstract: s Inter-national, 1975, 35, 7134A. (University Microfilms No. 75-9694, 264) Rubin, L. J. Facts and feelings in the classroom. New York: The Viking Press, 1973. Sears, R. R. Relation of early socialization experiences to self-concepts and gender role in middle childhood. Child Development, 1970, J>1, 267-289. Seaver, W. B. Effects of naturally induced teacher expectancies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1973, 28, 333-342. Snow, R. E. Unfinished Pygmalion. Contemporary Psychology, 1969, 11+, 197-199. Sorotzkin, F., Fleming, E. S., & Anttonen, R. G. Teacher knowledge of standardized test information and its effect on pupil I.Q. and achievement. The Journal of Experimental Education, 1974, 1+3, 79-85. Stevens, D. 0. Reading difficulty and classroom acceptance. The Reading Teacher, 1911,25, 197-199. Thomas, W. I. The relation of research to the social process. Essays on Research in the Social Sciences, Washington: Brookings Institution, 1931, 175-194. Thorndike, R. L. Review of Pygmalion in the Classroom by R. Rosenthal and L. Jacobson. American Educational Research Journal, 1968, 5, 708-711. Tyo, A. M. A comparison of the verbal behavior of teachers in interaction with migrant and non-migrant students. New York: State University of New York, Genesco, Center for Migrant Studies, 1972. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. 075-160) Videbeck, R. Self-conception and the reaction of others. Sociometry, 1960, 23, 351-362. Wilkins, W. E., & Glock, M. D. Teacher expectations and student achievement: A replication and extension. Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell University, 1973. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. 080-567) Willis, B. J. The influence of teacher expectation on teachers' classroom interaction with selected children (Doctoral dissertation, George Peabody College, 1969). Dissertation Abstracts International, 1970, 30, 5072A. (University Microfilms No. 70-07647)
215 citations
TL;DR: Tutoring programs that use children as tutors for other children are increasing in number and variety (Gartner, Kohler, & Riessman, 1971; Thelen, 1969) and although these programs are purported to be valuable in many ways for both tutors and tutors, the evidence supporting generalizations about tutoring has often been inconclusive as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: Tutoring programs that use children as tutors for other children are increasing in number and variety (Gartner, Kohler, & Riessman, 1971; Thelen, 1969). Although these programs are purported to be valuable in many ways for both tutors and tutees, the evidence supporting generalizations about tutoring has often been inconclusive. Typically, anecdotal reports rather than hard data have been gathered from tutorial programs in the schools (Bell, Garlock, & Colella, 1969; Costello & Martin, 1972; Goodman, 1971; Moskowitz, 1972; Office of Education, 1967; Swett, 1971). Some well-controlled research has been conducted, however.
196 citations
TL;DR: A review of the literature on adapting instruction to the student can be found in this paper, with a focus on adapting the method of instruction to student characteristics rather than on a systematically formulated set of precepts.
Abstract: The field of education is currently filled with numerous attempts to inspire educators to implement and researchers to study individualized instruction. But, adapting instruction to the student is hardly new in education. Plato's famous dialogue with the slave boy Meno is an ancient attempt to suit instruction to the student. Cohen (1963) attempted to recast this classic dialogue into a linear program, thus neatly relating the ancient and modern interest in adapting instruction to the student. Despite this persistent interest in individualized instruction, there are few systematic attempts to adapt the method of instruction to student characteristics. Existing adaptations generally consist of varying instructional rate to student needs rather than instructional method. When instructional method has been suited to the student, such adaptations are typically based on the artistry of the practitioner, rather than on a systematically formulated set of precepts that have been verified by empirical research. The purpose of this paper is to review some of the
154 citations
TL;DR: For instance, the steady increase in the quantity of research being reported in the professional journals on learning from prose reflects a mushrooming interest in the topic (Frase, 1973a) as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Until quite recently, it appeared that the puzzle of how people learn from meaningful prose materials and how such learning can be enhanced was destined to remain unsolved and, for the most part, ignored. Carroll (1968) correctly observed that our learning theories contained a huge gap where one might expect to find explanations regarding acquisition of information from prose materials. Unfortunately, the rise of behaviourism was accompanied by the suppression of interest in cognitive processes. Thus, for several decades attention was focused primarily on simple associative mechanisms of learning, and much of learning research involved conditioning techniques applied to lower organisms. These trends may well have been responsible for the gap alluded to by Carroll. In any event, the tide now appears to be turning. The steady increase in the quantity of research being reported in the professional journals on learning from prose reflects a mushrooming interest in the topic (Frase, 1973a). Among the most important reasons for this trend are the work of Ausubel on meaningful verbal learning (1963) and the introduction of the notion of mathemagenic activities by Rothkopf (1965). While many researchers were attempting to generalize principles of
144 citations
Journal Article•
TL;DR: In contrast, the teaching process paradigm focuses on various aspects of teacher and student behavior judged to be worthwhile in their own right or linked to student achievement in previous research as discussed by the authors, and neither paradigm has identified consistent, replicable features of human teaching that lead directly or indirectly to valued student outcomes.
Abstract: Recent research on teaching has followed two lines of inquiry. One is the criterion of effectiveness paradigm, and the other is the teaching process paradigm (Gage, 1972). The criterion of effectiveness paradigm uses pupil outcomes-usually achievement-as a measure of teacher effectiveness. In contrast, the teaching process paradigm focuses on various aspects of teacher and student behavior judged to be worthwhile in their own right or linked to student achievement in previous research. Neither paradigm has identified consistent, replicable features of human teaching that lead directly-or even indirectly-to valued student outcomes. Consistent conclusions from research on teaching are that teacher effects on pupil outcomes are
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present the major elements or components of teacher expectancy research together with the hypotheses that support expectancy effects and propose a set of competing hypotheses, including student achievement and teacher expectations.
Abstract: In this paper we present the major elements or components of teacher expectancy research together with the hypotheses that support expectancy effects. We also propose a set of competing hypotheses. Research is reviewed that is pertinent to both expectancy hypotheses and our alternative hypotheses. For example, one major expectancy hypothesis is that teacher expectations influence student achievement. An alternative hypothesis is that student achievement influences teacher expectations. In this review, a logical model is proposed that enables one to compare the effects of expectancy on achievement, achievement on expectancy, and achievement on achievement as well as to make a number of other comparisons. The expectancy research is reviewed primarily in terms of this model. It should be noted that student self-expectancy research is ignored in this review. A Model of Causal Linkages in Explaining Effects of Teacher Expectancies
TL;DR: The question of how content should be sequenced or ordered has been the subject of educational debates for at least the past 70 years (Dewey, 1902; Rugg, 1927; Tyler, 1950; Taba, 1962, Ausubel, 1964; Bruner, 1960; Suppes, 1966; Gagné, 1970, Popham & Baker, 1970; Posner, 1974) as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: The question of how content should be sequenced or ordered has been the subject of educational debates for at least the past 70 years (Dewey, 1902; Rugg, 1927; Tyler, 1950; Taba, 1962, Ausubel, 1964; Bruner, 1960; Suppes, 1966; Gagné, 1970; Popham & Baker, 1970; Posner, 1974). However, no satisfactory answer has been developed, and no adequate prescription is expected in the near future. In order to properly deal with the prescriptive question, How should content be sequenced? we need first to ask the prior descriptive question, In what ways can,content be sequenced? That is, what principles can be used to sequence content? We have very little information, based on hard data, regarding the consequences of alternative content sequences and will need a good deal more research effort before we are able to satisfactor ily suggest how content should be sequenced. Our intention here is to consider the question, What are the alternatives?
TL;DR: In the dozen years since Glaser's seminal article on criterion-referenced testing, the acceptance of the concept of mastery as an educational and, hence, evaluation goal has grown tremendously as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: In the dozen years since Glaser's (1963) seminal article on criterion-referenced testing, the acceptance of the concept of mastery as an educational and, hence, evaluation goal has grown tremendously. A large number of articles have been published, curriculum programs have been devised that employ criterionreferenced testing, and yet writers still feel it necessary to define what a criterion-referenced test is. Furthermore, the various published definitions are by no means equivalent. One also observes a shift in the interests and background of the authors of papers over this period. In the Sixties, writers were primarily advocating the adoption of criterion-referenced testing from an educational or philosophical point of view in spite of the reservations of the classical measurement theorists, whereas in the Seventies a new generation of measurement specialists have begun to be involved, and the papers are much more mathematical. A number of mathematically-based techniques for deciding
TL;DR: The use of self-control procedures, where pupils manage and control their own behavior in classroom settings, has recently increased in popularity, even though the idea that pupils should control their classroom behavior is not new as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: The control of classroom behavior has been well documented in the literature (Hanley, 1970; Kazdin & Bootzin, 1972; O'Leary & Drabman, 1971). However, as several researchers have pointed out, a great deal of human behavior is controlled and maintained without apparent immediate external consequences (Bandura, 1969, 1971; Kanfer, 1971; Kanfer & Karoly, 1972; Mahoney & Thoresen, 1974; Thoresen & Mahoney, 1974). The management of one's own behavior has been recently suggested as a promising and powerful behavioral technology. The use of self-control procedures, where pupils manage and control their own behavior in classroom settings, has recently increased in popularity, even though the idea that pupils should control their own classroom behavior is not new. The child's control of his own behavior has been listed as one objective of the educational process (Lovitt & Curtiss, 1969). Because of a recent trend to develop self-control procedures in school settings, the purpose of this paper is to examine the application of self-
TL;DR: The Keller Plan or Personalized System of Instruction (Keller, this article ) is an alternative strategy for individualizing instruction without eliminating human interaction and without adding prohibitive cost-training factors has evolved under the name of the Keller Plan.
Abstract: Although the cornerstone of modern experimental psychology has been the investigation of learning, only in recent years has behavioral technology been systematically applied to college teaching. Prior to the 1950's most research on college teaching consisted of comparisons of traditional lecture, discussion, and independent study techniques. Dubin and Taveggia (1968) reviewed 91 such comparisons and concluded that there were no significant differences in achievement favoring any of these methods; they suggested the need for developing new models of the teaching-learning situation. In the 1950's experimental psychologists started to develop such new models by applying learning principles to individualize instruction (Skinner, 1954, 1958), and within several years a sophisticated technology of programmed and computer-assisted learning had evolved (Lumsdaine & Glaser, 1960; Stolurow, 1961; Taber, Glaser, & Schaefer, 1965). Although programmed and computer-assisted instruction individualized learning, these technologies replaced the human element with high speed, and in many cases, high-cost machines. The specialized knowledge, long preparation times, and large budgets necessary to develop and maintain programmed systems have often proved prohibitive. Recently, an alternative strategy for individualizing instruction without eliminating human interaction and without adding prohibitive cost-training factors has evolved under the name of the Keller Plan or Personalized System of Instruction (Keller,
Journal Article•
TL;DR: The emerging field of evaluation research has been entrusted with just such a responsibility as mentioned in this paper, in the process of designing and collecting data relevant to the judgment of the worth of a social program or its components, the evaluator is responsible.
Abstract: An eminent policy analyst has suggested that all scientific knowledge be categorized into three levels: knowledge relevant to the control of the physical environment, knowledge relevant to the control of society and individuals, and knowledge relevant to the nature of the controls themselves (Dror, 1971). Knowledge is most advanced in the first level (the physical sciences), much less so in the second (the social sciences), and scarcely developed at all in the third (the "policy sciences"). With the emergence of what Dror has called "controlling man," vast stores of information are available for potential use in exerting control upon the physical or social environment; in contrast, little information is available to help determine thefocus and direction of such control. Present scientific knowledge should not be expected to supply new values and belief systems; such would be outside its realm. But science can and should be able to supply better, more systematic information concerning preferable alternatives for the probable consequences of environmental control decisions (Campbell, 1972; Coleman, 1972). The emerging field of evaluation research has been entrusted with just such a responsibility. That is, in the process of designing and collecting data relevant to the judgment of the worth of a social program or its components, the evaluator is responsible-
TL;DR: A review on the effect of cross-age teaching on the adolescent tutor can be found in this article, where the authors attempt to redirect attention to basic theoretical questions: What is the purpose of crossage teaching? What quality and quantity of 'effect' on adolescents is indicated by a cross-ages teaching experience?
Abstract: Adolescents who tutor young children benefit from learning by teaching. The research which investigates the effects of this significant learning process has all too often been subsumed by practical necessity and the pressure for cross-age tutoring programs to \"succeed.\" In the literature, subdivisions of the topic center on the practical: training sessions for staff and tutors, tutoring materials, and tutoring space, to name a few. The first book on cross-age teaching, Children Teach Children: Learning by Teaching by Gartner, Kohler, and Riessman, emerged in 1971 to bolster full recognition of this field as a legitimate area of research. Even so, this pioneer work is more of an administrative manual than a focus of inquiry and evaluation. This review, in its emphasis on the effect of cross-age teaching on the adolescent tutor, is an attempt to redirect attention to basic theoretical questions: What is the purpose of cross-age teaching? What quality and quantity of 'effect' on adolescents is indicated by a cross-age teaching experience? The need for such inquiry is underscored by the proliferation of articles, papers, and dissertations in the 1960's and 1970's, most of which offer incomplete or superficial answers at best to these questions.
TL;DR: The General Linear Model (GLM) as discussed by the authors is a family of models possessing a common characteristic, namely, linearity in the parameters of the equation specifying the model, which has been used extensively in the analysis of nonlinear data.
Abstract: Recent works by Cohen (1968), Kelly, Beggs, McNeil, Eichelberger, and Lyon (1969), Kerlinger and Pedhazur (1973), McNeil (1970), Walberg (1971), and Bottenberg and Ward (Note 1) have attested to the flexibility of the General Linear Model. These publications have shown the capabilities of a single approach to the solution of correlation, regression, and Fisherian analysis of variance problems. It is noteworthy that all six of these publications claim, more or less, to be using the General Linear Model, but in no case has the particular linear model and its assumptions been clearly specified and consistently applied. The General Linear Model is a name given to the family of models possessing a common characteristic, namely, linearity in the parameters of the equation specifying the model. The members of this family are distinguishable in terms of their various assumptions, and it is the contention of this author that the distinctions among these different linear models are of more than just passing interest. The above publications, plus those of Digman (1966) and of McNeil and Spaner (1971), have shown the capabilities of the General Linear Model in handling the analysis of nonlinear data.1 This approach, with a history dating back to Court (1930),
TL;DR: In an attempt to discover the underlying cause or causes of poor reading performance of black inner-city children, several explanations have been suggested as mentioned in this paper, such as cultural, cognitive, and/or linguistic deficit resulting from either genetic pathology or from an impoverished environment.
Abstract: Both parents and educators have been greatly concerned about the poor reading achievement evident among many black urban youths. National reports that black children score lower on reading achievement tests than their white counterparts with the same socioeconomic and residential status have increased this concern. Cohen (1969) reported that, in New York City, 83% of disadvantaged black children and 45% of disadvantaged white children were already one to three years retarded in reading by grade three. Similarly, Coleman, Campbell, Hobson, McPartland, Modd, Weinfeld, and York (1966) indicated that average black northeastern metropolitan students at grade six were 1.8 years behind average white northeastern metropolitan students in reading comprehension as measured by the School Survey Tests. In an attempt to discover the underlying cause or causes of the poor reading performance of black inner-city children, several explanations have been suggested. Some have argued that these children show a cultural, cognitive, and/or linguistic deficit resulting from either genetic pathology (Jensen, 1969) or from an impoverished environment (Bereiter & Englemann, 1966; Bernstein, 1961; Blank & Solomon, 1968; Clark & Richards, 1966; Deutsch, Brown, Deutsch, Goldstein, John, Katz, Levinson, Peisach, & Witeman, 1967). Regardless of the etiology, many educators and psychologists have held that many black children come to school with a deficient language system that militates against making progress in academic subjects, especially reading. Intensive language remediation is therefore considered a prerequisite to the task of learning to read. Language programs such as DISTAR (Engelmann & Osborn, 1970) reflect this perspective.
TL;DR: The variety of stimuli that serve as reinforcers in our day-today lives is virtually endless. Yet, when it comes to instructing or experimenting with lower-class children, reinforcement frequently narrows to a class of material objects that are presumed to be most effective with this group as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: The variety of stimuli that serve as reinforcers in our day-today lives is virtually endless. Yet, when it comes to instructing or experimenting with lower-class children, reinforcement frequently narrows to a class of material objects that are presumed to be most effective with this group. Candies, cookies, toys, tokens, trinkets, and money have been used in programs to improve the academic and social behavior of lower-class children (Chan, Chin, & Mueller, 1970; Hechinger, 1973; Risley, 1968; Risley & Hart, 1968; and Staats & Butterfield, 1965). Interest in tangible reinforcers for lower-class children may be due in part to the mounting evidence that, when used as directed, these incentives and reinforcers can result in significant
Journal Article•
TL;DR: For instance, the steady increase in the quantity of research being reported in the professional journals on learning from prose reflects a mushrooming interest in the topic (Frase, 1973a) as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Until quite recently, it appeared that the puzzle of how people learn from meaningful prose materials and how such learning can be enhanced was destined to remain unsolved and, for the most part, ignored. Carroll (1968) correctly observed that our learning theories contained a huge gap where one might expect to find explanations regarding acquisition of information from prose materials. Unfortunately, the rise of behaviourism was accompanied by the suppression of interest in cognitive processes. Thus, for several decades attention was focused primarily on simple associative mechanisms of learning, and much of learning research involved conditioning techniques applied to lower organisms. These trends may well have been responsible for the gap alluded to by Carroll. In any event, the tide now appears to be turning. The steady increase in the quantity of research being reported in the professional journals on learning from prose reflects a mushrooming interest in the topic (Frase, 1973a). Among the most important reasons for this trend are the work of Ausubel on meaningful verbal learning (1963) and the introduction of the notion of mathemagenic activities by Rothkopf (1965). While many researchers were attempting to generalize principles of