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Showing papers in "Review of Educational Research in 1979"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors argue that cognitively and academically beneficial bilingualism can be achieved only on the basis of adequately developed first language (L1) skills and two hypotheses are formulated and combined to arrive at this position.
Abstract: The central thesis of this paper is that a cognitively and academically beneficial form of bilingualism can be achieved only on the basis of adequately developed first language (L1) skills. Two hypotheses are formulated and combined to arrive at this position. The “developmental interdependence” hypothesis proposes that the development of competence in a second language (L2) is partially a function of the type of competence already developed in L1 at the time when intensive exposure to L2 begins. The “threshold” hypothesis proposes that there may be threshold levels of linguistic competence which a bilingual child must attain both in order to avoid cognitive disadvantages and allow the potentially beneficial aspects of bilingualism to influence his cognitive and academic functioning. These hypotheses are integrated into a model of bilingual education in which educational outcomes are explained as a function of the interaction between background, child input and educational treatment factors. It is suggest...

2,926 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a teacher is presenting a lesson on the United States Congress and the students are discussing in small groups the reasons why citizens want to be representatives in Congress, one student says the major reason is wanting to help your neighbors and your country, and quotes Roger Mudd (CBS News, December 24, 1976) that a representative in Congress receives more than $400,000 per year in salary and benefits.
Abstract: In a social studies class a teacher is presenting a lesson on the United States Congress. The students are discussing in small groups the reasons why citizens want to be representatives in Congress. One student says the major reason is wanting to help your neighbors and your country. Another student says being a member of Congress is just a way to get rich, and quotes Roger Mudd (CBS News, December 24, 1976) that a representative in Congress receives more than $400,000 per year in salary and benefits. Voices rise as the argument continues. What does the teacher do? Would the teacher encourage the argument, helping students find evidence to support and argue their positions? Or would the teacher try to calm things down and change the topic of discussion? Within any learning situation such conflicts among ideas or opinions are inevitable. They will occur no matter what the teacher does. Learning situations are filled with conflicts among students, between the teacher and the student, and between what a student presently understands and new information being learned. And the current evidence indicates that in most classrooms conflicts are avoided and suppressed (DeCecco & Richards, 1974) and that teachers and students lack the skills and procedures needed for effective conflict management (Deutsch, 1973; Blake & Mouton, 1970; Johnson, 1970) By avoiding and suppressing certain types of conflicts teachers lose valuable opportunities to increase student motivation, creative insight, cognitive development, and learning. Conflicts have the potential for producing both

441 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the impact of classroom environments on student behavior, attitudes, and achievement is reviewed, and some future directions for research are discussed, and the advantages and limitations of various research designs are summarized.
Abstract: This paper reviews research on the impact of classroom environments on student behavior, attitudes, and achievement. The first section examines studies of six environmental variables: seating position, classroom design, density, privacy, noise, and the presence or absence of windows. In the second part of the paper, research conducted from an “ecological” perspective is considered. A third section focuses on the effects of open space school designs. Finally, some future directions for research are discussed, and the advantages and limitations of various research designs are summarized.

369 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors discuss three limitations of the Barnes & Clawson review: inadequate representation of theory, inadequate analysis of learning outcomes, and inadequate experimental control, and present several theories of the effects of advance organizers on internal cognitive processes.
Abstract: In a recent review of research on advance organizers, Barnes & Clawson (1975, p. 651) concluded: "Advance organizers, as presently constructed, do not facilitate learning." This paper discusses three limitations of the Barnes & Clawson review: inadequate representation of theory, inadequate analysis of learning outcomes, and inadequate experimental control. Then several theories of the effects of advance organizers on internal cognitive processes are presented. Finally, nine separate tests of the theories are presented based on experiments which overcome the problems cited above. These tests clearly favor an assimilation encoding theory, and provide consistent evidence that advance organizers can influence the outcome of learning if used in appropriate situations and measured properly.

358 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the cognitive processes through which teacher expectations can sustain a given level of achievement are discussed. But no model has yet emerged, which integrates particular treatment findings into an influence sequence.
Abstract: Much research has examined the effects teacher expectations have on student performance. While evidence indicating that expectations bias student performance is scant, a substantial literature suggests expectations can sustain performance at undesirable levels. Classroom observation reveals consistent patterns of differential teacher behavior toward high-and low-expectation students. No model has yet emerged, however, which integrates particular treatment findings into an influence sequence. Such a model is presented, outlining the cognitive processes through which teacher expectations can sustain a given level of achievement. The model suggests that teachers frequently give affectively valanced feedback to low-expectation students as a mechanism for interaction control. High-expectation students more frequently receive feedback based on their effort expenditure. These different evaluation contingencies may lead lows to believe less strongly than highs that effort will influence academic outcomes. Differe...

357 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, six assumptions underlying differential diagnosis-prescriptive teaching (DDPT) are identified and a comprehensive review of research related to each assumption is presented, which seriously challenge the model's validity and suggest that continued advocacy of the model cannot be justified.
Abstract: The dominant instructional model within special education, Differential Diagnosis-Prescriptive Teaching, involves the assessment of psycholinguistic and perceptual motor abilities that are presumed necessary for learning basic academic skills. Based on the differential pattern of ability strengths and weaknesses resulting from this assessment, individual remedial prescriptions are prescribed. In this article six assumptions underlying this model are identified. Also presented is a comprehensive review of research related to each assumption. The findings seriously challenge the model’s validity and suggest that continued advocacy of the model cannot be justified. Children do not appear to profit from current applications of Differential Diagnosis-Prescriptive Teaching.

293 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the effects of asking students questions at different levels of cognitive complexity during learning were discussed, and it was shown that higher level questions can have facilitative effects on both reproductive and productive knowledge.
Abstract: The paper is concerned with the effects of asking students questions at different levels of cognitive complexity during learning. The first section reviewed research on levels of questions. It was shown that higher level questions can have facilitative effects on both reproductive and productive knowledge, but that the conditions under which such facilitation occurs are not well understood. The second section outlines an information processing model of human cognition that can account for question level effects and that serves to integrate previous research on question level and to provide direction for future research in this area.

248 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: There is much professional consensus that teacher questions have a major impact on the quality and quantity of student achievement as mentioned in this paper, and this belief has been labeled as a truism by Gall and Rosenshine.
Abstract: There is much professional consensus that teacher questions have a major impact on the quality and quantity of student achievement. Indeed, in an earlier review of the research on teacher questions, Gall (1970) labeled this belief a truism. Also, textbooks on teaching methods extol questioning techniques as a central element in teaching (e.g., Hoover, 1976). Indeed, some authors (e.g., Hunkins, 1972; Cunningham, 1971) imply to their readers that research has demonstrated relatively conclusively that particular kinds of questions and questioning strategies are more effective than others for promoting particular kinds of student achievement such as "thinking." Over the last two decades, efforts have been made to test assumptions and claims about the effects of teaching practices such as using more higher cognitive questions. Rosenshine (1971), and Dunkin and Biddle (1974) already have reviewed much research in the general area of teacher effects (see also Journal of Teacher Education, Summer, 1976),

217 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, Schneider et al. found that most interventions produced some effects on either self concept or achievement, but not both, and concluded that the effect of intervention on self concept change appeared to be an outcome of reading success rather than an intervening variable.
Abstract: s do not always include full details on some aspects of the study, the overall results are usually reported. Dissertations are included here which contained measurements of both self concept and academic achievement variables, after an attempted educational innovation. Each dissertation also had to include comparison between one or more groups of students who received the intervention program, and other students who did not, although these groups were not always randomly selected. With these criteria, a total of eighteen dissertations were located which evaluated programs ranging from "activity centered" education for first-graders to Personal Growth Groups as a compensatory education component for college freshmen (Beckum, 1973; Bradford, 1973; Hale, 1973; Hopke, 1975; Jones, 1975; Kalunian, 1975; Kenemuth, 1975; Kosensky, 1975; Lawson, 1974; McGinnis, 1972; Mendenhall, 1974; Mynatt, 1973; Pine, 1975; Pokipala, 1975; Poudrier, 1976; J.A. Smith, 1975; M. Smith, 1971; Zirkel, 1972). The effects reported by these studies are strikingly simple to summarize: in no case were changes in achievement unambiguously associated with changes in self concept. None of these educational programs showed measurable effects on all target groups' self concept scores while at the same time increasing academic achievement. Only two studies found positive changes on both variables for even part of their target population. Lawson's (1974) study of "non-graded" versus "graded" schools for pupils in their first, third, or fifth year of schooling found higher reading achievement for the non-graded schools at all three levels and higher self concept scores in the same schools only for the fifth year students. Self concept change here appears to be an outcome of reading success rather than an intervening variable. Bradford (1973), comparing one school with an Individually Guided Education program with a "control" school having self contained structure, found significantly greater gain scores in the experimental school on both self concept and arithmetic achievement, but not reading achievement. Few details are available for this study, but the use of only one school for each type of program confounds the potential program effects with other possible differences between the schools. The questionably positive results from these two studies thus do not overcome the main thrust of the pattern of negative results in all other studies. Further, a close examination of the results reveals that most interventions produced some effects on either self concept or achievement, but not both. Ten studies (Bradford, 1973; Hopke, 1975; Jones, 1975; Kalunian, 1975; Kosensky, 1975; Lawson, 1974; McGinnis, 1972; Pine, 1975; M. Smith, 1971; Zirkel, 1972) found significant effects on their self concept measures. Not surprisingly, these studies were mainly those emphasizing an activity or child-centered program, along with several vocational education programs for teenagers, which may also be more "activity" centered. Seven studies (Beckum, 1973; Hopke, 1975; Kenemuth, 1975; Lawson, 1974; Mynatt, 1973; Poudrier, 1976; J. A. Smith, 1975) produced effects on achievement variables. In several of these, the differences favored "control" groups with "traditional" or academic oriented programs, (Hopke, 1975; Poudrier, 1976), or resulted from tutoring programs (Beckum, 1973; Kenemuth, 1975). Thus, the lack of evidence in these dissertations for a connection between self concept 139 SCHEIRER & KRAUT This content downloaded from 157.55.39.111 on Sat, 17 Sep 2016 06:00:58 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms REVIEW OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH and achievement should not be attributed to totally inadequate measuring instruments, nor to failure to implement the intended programs, since the programs did produce some measurable results. Discussion: Analysis by Self Concept Theories As has become evident, these evaluations of educational interventions have generally failed to find an association between self concept change and academic achievement. Reasons for the lack of such association can be grouped into four categories: 1) methodological problems with the study design and types of data collected, 2) practical implementation problems such that the intended intervention was not actually taking place, 3) theoretical problems with the specification of the processes by which enhanced self concept might influence academic achievement, and 4) an erroneous basic theory, such that self concept is not a viable mechanism for enhancing academic achievement. Each of these will be considered briefly in this section. Methodological Problems Criticisms of social action evaluations that have failed to find effects often focus on the methodological weakness of a specific study, such as the barrage of commentary which followed the Westinghouse-Ohio University Head Start evaluation (Campbell & Erlebacher, 1970; Smith & Bissell, 1970). As this paper has frequently noted, methodological problems are endemic in this type of research and frequently contribute to the difficulty of interpreting each individual study. Adequate control groups were not always available, particularly in the larger scale programs, although randomized assignment was often present in the dissertation research. Outcome measures were sometimes inappropriate for the treatment undertaken, as when IQ tests, usually viewed as assessing underlying academic abilities, were used in programs emphasizing increasing the child's motivations for academic achievement. Further, Wylie's (1974) recent review of self concept measures concluded that no well-constructed, well-validated measuring instruments are yet available, particularly for self concept in young children. The failure to find self concept changes in the programs reviewed here was often attributed by their analysts to inadequate measurement in this affec-

196 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The concept of test-wiseness has a relatively short history in educational research as mentioned in this paper, and no empirical research was performed to thoroughly examine the construct, although most test constructors testified to its existence.
Abstract: The construct of test-wiseness (TW) has a relatively short history in educational research. Originally suggested as a possible effector of reliability (Thorndike, 1951), it has since become a frequently used term, but one not without its problems of interpretation. Early confusion over the precise components and functioning of TW stemmed from the fact that although most test-constructors testified to its existence, no empirical research was performed to thoroughly examine the construct. Thorndike's pioneering discussion of TW classified it as a possible source of variance in test scores, and described it as a persistent general trait of the test-taker. Although he did postulate possible characteristics of the test-wise individual, Thorndike's brief treatise of TW was descriptive in nature, and did not suggest any specific directions for research. Similarly, in another early appearance in the literature, TW was listed as a component of response variance in objective test questions, but no experimentation was cited or proposed (Ebel & Damrin, 1960). In providing the first thorough empirical investigation of TW, Gibb (1964) illustrated the dearth of research, by claiming that the most complete reference on the subject was the early work of Thorndike (1951). However, Gibb's own work altered that circumstance. In examining individual differences in TW skills, he provided an operational definition of TW, and also developed an instrument to measure the construct.

145 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article developed four overall methods for assessing prose processes produced by adjunct postquestions and collectively four processes have been found operating in such situations, including a specific backward process, a general backward process and a specific forward process.
Abstract: Four overall methods have been developed for assessing prose processes produced by adjunct postquestions and collectively four processes have been found operating in such situations. The four processes are: 1) a specific backward process—mental review of questioned material; 2) a general backward process—mental review of information adjacent to and/or topically related to the material questioned; 3) specific forward process—set to focus on specific kinds of information in text segments following inserted postquestions; and 4) general forward process—increased attention to text segments following adjunct postquestions. The methods for assessing these processes are reviewed, and suggestions for future research are provided.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors focus on the effects of different training curricula, curriculum content sequences, and curricular materials on counselor/clinician training and their effect on clinical outcomes.
Abstract: Graduate and mid-career training and supervision are important processes for all human service professions. Practitioners, trainers, and researchers must all acquire and consistently utilize certain skills, attitudes, and knowledge in order to function effectively during their professional careers. Although process and outcome research in psychotherapy and counseling has been extensively reported (e.g., Bergin & Garfield, 1971; Luborsky, Chandler, Auerbach, Cohen, & Bachrach, 1971) parallel research on training counselors and clinicians was almost nonexistent ten years ago (Matarazzo, Wiens, & Saslow, 1966), and rather sparse even five years ago (Matarazzo, 1971). At present, however, the literature encompasses over 100 empirical studies. Although the methods, curricula, and objectives utilized in training are inseparably interdependent in practice, this paper will focus on training methods because that research literature alone merits thorough review before the enormous task of tying together all the research concerning training's many component processes can be undertaken. Furthermore, research investigating the effects of different training curricula, curriculum content sequences, and curricular materials is, unfortunately, virtually nonexistent in the counselor/clinician training literature (Johnson & Sribbe, 1975; Wexler, 1976). Concerning training objectives, the crucial question of what skills, attitudes, and knowledge

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper summarized what is known about the accuracy of teacher reports of their classroom behavior and found eleven studies; these eleven studies differed widely in grade level, subject, procedures used to obtain information from teachers, and procedures for observing and summarizing classroom events.
Abstract: This review was written to summarize what is known about the accuracy of teacher reports of their classroom behavior. The accuracy of such teacher reports is not a major topic of research, nor should it be. But it is a persistent question for those studying teaching. Locating studies on this topic was difficult. The topic is seldom studied directly, but usually emerges as a by-product of a larger question. Our organized ERIC search was not successful. However, as a result of our general reading on teaching, we found eleven studies; these eleven studies differed widely in grade level, subject, procedures used to obtain information from teachers, and procedures for observing and summarizing classroom events. The major characteristics of these studies are summarized in Table 1. The studies are grouped according to the three procedures used for grouping data: studies in which teacher reports of specific, single behaviors were correlated with single observed behaviors; studies in which items from teacher questionnaires or interviews and classroom observations were grouped into scales and dimensions such as "individualizing" and, studies in which teacher reports and observations were grouped along a stylistic continuum such as open to traditional. All teachers were experienced except for those in the study by Johnson (Note 1) who were student teachers. All studies took place in regular classrooms except for Johnson who used a microteaching setting.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Punishment and alternate response training as determinants of response inhibition in children are discussed in this article, where the role of punishment in the socialization process of children is discussed.
Abstract: s International, 1968, 29, 2659-B. (University Microfilms No. 68-17,703) O'Leary, K. D. The effects of self-instruction on immoral behavior. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1968, 6, 297-301. Palkes, H., Stewart, M., & Kahana, B. Porteus maze performance after training in self-directed verbal commands. Child Development, 1968, 39, 817-826. Palkes, H., Stewart, M., & Freedman, J. Improvement in maze performance on hyperactive boys as a function of verbal training procedures. Journal of Special Education, 1972, 5, 337- 343. Parke, R. D. Effectiveness of punishment as an interaction of intensity, timing, agent nurturance and cognitive structuring. Child Development, 1969, 40, 213-236. Parke, R. D. The role of punishment in the socialization process. In R. A. Hoppe, G. A. Milton, & E. C. Simmel (Eds.), Early experiences and the process of socialization. New York: Academic Press, 1970. Parke, R. D. Rules, roles, and resistance to deviation in children: Explorations in punishment, discipline and self-control. In A. Pick (Ed.), Minnesota symposium on child psychology (Vol. 8). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1974. Parke, R. D. Punishment in children: Effects, side effects, and alternative strategies. In H. L. Hom, Jr., & P. A. Robinson (Eds.), Psychological processes in early education. New York: Academic Press, 1977. Patterson, C. J., & Carter, D. B. Attentional determinants of children's self-control in waiting and working situations. Child Development, in press. Patterson, C. J., & Mischel, W. Plans to resist distraction. Developmental Psychology, 1975, 11, 369-378. Patterson, C. J., & Mischel, W. Effects of temptation-inhibiting and task-facilitating plans on self-control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1976, 33, 209-217. Perry, D. G., Bussey, K., & Perry, L. C. Factors influencing the imitation of resistance to deviation. Developmental Psychology, 1975, 11, 724-731. Perry, D. G., & Parke, R. D. Punishment and alternate response training as determinants of response inhibition in children. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 1975, 91, 257-279. Piaget, J., & Inhelder, B. Mental imagery in the child. New York: Basic Books, 1971. Pick, A. D., Frankel, D. G., & Hess, V. L. Children's attention: The development of selectivity. In E. M. Hetherington (Ed.), Review of child development research (Vol. 5). Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors reviewed the relevant literature and located over 100 such studies, which were summarized in a monograph published the next year by the North Dakota Study Group on Evaluation (Horwitz, 1976).
Abstract: Since the first descriptive reports of the progressive teaching approach in English primary schools appeared in the American press in the mid-1960's, there has been a vast outpouring of literature on what has come to be called "open education," or the "open classroom." Many of the early reports provided rich and vivid descriptions of what was going on in the English schools and stressed how much more humane and more sensitive to realities of child development this approach to teaching seemed to be. Other writings analyzed the open education movement in the context of its historical precedents and psychological/philosophical underpinnings and compared the development of the approach in England and the United States. Still others, with a more practical orientation, provided specific advice on how to implement open education in American schools. As interest in open education increased, so did demands for systematic evaluative research on its effects, to the point where there now exists a fairly sizable body of work on academic and psychological effects of open classroom teaching. In 1975, I reviewed the relevant literature and located over 100 such studies, which I summarized in a monograph published the next year by the North Dakota Study Group on Evaluation (Horwitz, 1976). In late 1977, in preparation for this paper, I searched the literature again and located nearly 100 additional studies which had either appeared in the intervening two years or been inadvertently overlooked in my previous review. The outpouring of research continues, but for all the amassing of data, there is still by no means a clear answer to the question of whether or

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Home-based reinforcement of school behavior is proving to be an efficient method for motivating behavioral change as mentioned in this paper, and has been used successfully with children in group homes, with children with special classes, and with entire mainstream and special classrooms.
Abstract: Home-based reinforcement of school behavior is proving to be an efficient method for motivating behavioral change. It has been used successfully with children in group homes, with children in special classes, and with entire mainstream and special classrooms. Twenty-four studies are reviewed with particular attention given to types of consequences employed and methods of gaining parental involvement. Consumable reinforcers, earned privileges, verbal praise, and response costs were all effectively administered by parents who were informed of their children’s performance via daily or weekly school notes. Parents were instructed in their role in several ways, including group and individual conferences as well as simple letters sent home. A wide range of behaviors and academic problems were remedied rapidly and with a modicum of response costs to counselors, teachers, and parents. Implications for further research are considered.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The notion that certain systems of reward may inhibit children's desire to participate in educational activities was investigated by reviewing recent research on intrinsic motivation as mentioned in this paper, which was critiqued from four theoretical perspectives: self-perception theory, personal causation, the overjustification hypothesis, and behavioral contrast.
Abstract: The notion that certain systems of reward may inhibit children’s desire to participate in educational activities was investigated by reviewing recent research on intrinsic motivation. This research was critiqued from four theoretical perspectives: self-perception theory, personal causation, the overjustification hypothesis, and behavioral contrast. Studies were grouped according to the independent variables (reward systems) demonstrated to have the greatest effects on subsequent motivation. General trends observed in the results of this research included detrimental effects both of participation-contingent and of task-inherent rewards, and the motivational value of unambiguous social reinforcers. It was suggested that the contradictory nature of the bulk of reviewed results was partly due to the failure of researchers to commonly define intrinsic motivation, and further research using a variety of dependent measures was encouraged to facilitate evaluation of classroom reward systems.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors compare the recent research on visual-imagery mnemonic techniques with research in the late 1800's and early 1900's, showing that the roots of much recent research can be traced back at least a century.
Abstract: A few empirical studies of mnemonics were conducted in the late 1800’s and early 1900’s. Then, very little research was done until the 1960’s, when a revived research interest in mnemonics accompanied the return of cognitive processes as a legitimate area of research. Virtually all of the experimental research on mnemonics has been conducted since 1965, and most of that since 1970. Research on visual-imagery mnemonic techniques in the 1970’s is compared with research in the late 1800’s and early 1900’s, showing that the roots of much “recent” research can be traced back at least a century. Finally, some of the fruits yielded by recent research on mnemonics, in terms of practical implications for education, are described.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the important role played by nonverbal communication in the teaching process is emphasized, and the relationship of nonverbal research to general educational theory and process-product paradigm is discussed.
Abstract: The important role played by nonverbal communication in the teaching process is emphasized. Following a discussion of semantic issues and general nonverbal research, school-related research is reviewed under seven categories of nonverbal communication: environmental factors, proxemics, kinesics, touching behavior, physical characteristics, paralanguage, and artifacts. Characteristics of general educational theory and the process-product paradigm are outlined and the relationship of nonverbal research to these areas is discussed. Finally, several technological and statistical concerns are presented.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors reviewed some interrelated areas of research on experiences of extensive failure and discussed the implications of these investigations in terms of research strategies to be explored, and concluded that failure is a significant debilitating factor in the treatment of these children.
Abstract: Our understanding of learning disabilities has been enriched in recent years by greater recognition of the problem and commitment to helping this group of handicapped children (CELDIC Report, 1970; Myklebust & Boshes, 1969). There is increasing awareness that the term "learning disabilities" is inadequate to describe various constellations of childhood perceptual and cognitive disorders (Cruickshank & Hallahan, 1975; Douglas, 1976). With current limited knowledge in this area, the advantage of a global definition has been to insure flexibility while investigating this still largely unknown childhood behavioral syndrome. Therefore, rather than catalog the numerous definitional variations that have developed, the reader is referred to those sources which have discussed the practical necessities and limitations of current definitions of learning disabilities (Gaddes, 1976; Sabatino, 1976; Turton, 1975). While it has been generally acknowledged that the term learning disabilities is too all-encompassing to be of research or treatment benefit, subtypes within this rubric, such as hyperactivity or attentional deficit, continue to note common observations of prolonged experience with failure (Whalen & Henker, 1976). As well, it has been observed that various learning disability syndromes which have been tentatively identified are usually accompanied by an emotional overlay of frustration and defeat (Minde, Lewin, Weiss, Lavigeur, Douglas, & Sykes, 1971). While this aspect of learning disabilities was recognized early as a significant debilitating factor in the treatment of these children, only recently have the effects of failure together with concomitant expectations and strategies of disabled learners benefited from systematic investigation. Thus, the focus of the present paper is two-fold: first to review some interrelated areas of research on experiences of extensive failure; second to discuss the implications of these investigations in terms of research strategies to be explored.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a review of the use of student ratings as feedback to teachers is presented, which suggests that differences in the source and nature of the feedback and in the attributes of feedback recipients partly explain the differential effect which feedback has on teachers.
Abstract: This review deals with the use of student ratings as feedback to teachers. Evidence suggests that differences in the source and nature of the feedback and in the attributes of feedback recipients partly explain the differential effect which feedback has on teachers. Issues associated with the research design of feedback studies are also surveyed. The review suggests the existence of a minimal effect at best of feedback on instructional improvement at the university level. Suggestions are offered for improving the nature of the feedback.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the effects of various types (verbal, symbolic, tangible) and combinations (right-wrong, right-blank, wrong-blank) of feedback upon children's conceptual learning were evaluated in terms of theories involving reinforcement, motivation, and information-processing interpretations.
Abstract: Laboratory research was reviewed that compared the effects of various types (verbal, symbolic, tangible) and combinations (right-wrong, right-blank, wrong-blank) of feedback upon children’s conceptual learning. This research was evaluated in terms of theories involving reinforcement, motivation, and information-processing interpretations. In general, the findings have been consistent in two respects: (1) Verbal and symbolic feedback produce more rapid acquisition than does tangible feedback. (2) The wrong-blank combination produces faster acquisition and more resistance to extinction than does the right-blank condition. Results yielded by the right-wrong combination have been inconsistent. Several variables which interact with the type and combination of feedback children receive have not been systematically evaluated (e.g., incentive value, instructions, feedback accumulation, mode of delivery). Implications of laboratory research findings were then considered in relation to prototypic research designed ...

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a set of studies focusing on the classroom behavior-academic achievement relation are presented, and questions are raised regarding the reliability of the behavioral categories, their validity, and the nature of the relation that exists between behaviors and achievement.
Abstract: This review focuses on a set of studies in which data are presented on the classroom behavior-academic achievement relation. Three criteria were used in selecting studies for review: (a) the study employed observational measures of classroom behavior; (b) direct links were established between behavioral measures and some index of academic achievement; and (c) the pupil was employed as the unit of analysis. Following a summary of statistically significant behavior-achievement relations, an assessment of the research is presented in terms of concepts from the testing model. Thus, questions are raised regarding the reliability of the behavioral categories, their validity, and the nature of the relation that exists between behaviors and achievement. The review concludes with a summary of recommendations for future research on the issue.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a conceptual distinction is drawn between the broad process of organizational change and the more specific processes of purposive change and innovation, and a typology of four research frameworks relevant to innovation and change is presented and illustrated through exemplary studies in the field of higher education.
Abstract: This paper seeks to facilitate research on the processes of innovation and change in higher education, an area of scholarly endeavor which is attracting much interest of late. To meet this goal, a conceptual distinction is first drawn between the broad process of organizational change and the more specific processes of purposive change and innovation. Then, a typology of four research frameworks relevant to innovation and change is presented and illustrated through exemplary studies in the field of higher education. Using techniques of causal modeling, a prototypic flowgraph is constructed to capture the major features of each framework. Flowgraphs are cast in terms of posited relationships between generic variables which can be operationalized to suit the particular needs and setting of a given study. The authors further suggest that the most productive research on change and innovation in higher education will be based on sound theoretical reasoning employing combinations of the four frameworks. They ar...

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The increase in demand for services and the corresponding influx of people to the profession are creating a stress on the entire system and questions are arising as to the kinds of additional facilities that must be provided, how those facilities should be allocated, what resources are available for their development, and finally, who shall pay for them.
Abstract: A number of factors currently are combining to produce a rapid increase in demand for health care services. This is particularly true in medicine. The factors involved in this rise in demand are creating a need for more people to enter the profession at all levels. As new problems are identified, more research is needed to find solutions. As knowledge expands, more specialists are needed to cope with the complexities of each of the medical disciplines. And as more people begin to use the health care facilities, more generalists are needed to handle all of the "common" problems of patients. The increase in demand for services and the corresponding influx of people to the profession are creating a stress on the entire system. Questions are arising as to the kinds of additional facilities that must be provided, how those facilities should be allocated, what resources are available for their development, and finally, who shall pay for them. These are questions with no easy answers. Perhaps nowhere are these pressures being felt more acutely than in medical schools. The training needs of the profession are growing at an enormous rate. New and more complex roles are being required while traditional roles are becoming more demanding. At all levels, there is a need for broadened training programs. However, the number of medical schools is limited. There are only so many spaces for incoming students and there are only so many faculty members available to train them. Hence, it is necessary that schools become much more efficient and effective in their work with students. Materials and facilities must be economized and roles must be examined and changed where necessary. Every aspect of training must be considered-from pre-medicine courses all the way through residency training. Medical schools have already begun this process. Courses are being

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The concept of schema was first introduced by Bartlett (1932) in accounting for changes in memory over time as tending to be more approximate to the familiar as mentioned in this paper, where experience is mediated in some form by the effects of organization derived from the experience which acts to organize further experiences.
Abstract: to the above approaches by extending the concept of psychological distance to stimulus properties. Finally, this paper will make some concluding remarks concerning the utility of schema learning research applied to perceptual learning, and culture-free measures of learning ability. The emphasis of this paper is upon current research identifying future trends which appear in the literature. The basic idea of the schema was first introduced by Bartlett (1932) in accounting for changes in memory over time as tending to be more approximate to the familiar. Bartlett viewed experience as being mediated in some form by the effects of organization derived from the experience which acts to organize further experiences. Woodworth (1938) refined and clarified this concept of schema when he noted that configurations of new experiences are remembered in terms of a schema with the addition of a correction factor. People tend to classify new stimulus objects in the environment into general classes and then specify the exception or correction of the object in relation to that classificatory schema. Attneave (1957) concluded from the work of Woodworth that this represented a view of schema as consisting, "at least in part of some representation of the central tendency or communality of the class of objects in question" (p. 454).