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Showing papers in "Review of Educational Research in 1992"


Journal ArticleDOI
M. F. Pajares1
TL;DR: The authors examines the meaning prominent researchers give to beliefs and how this meaning differs from that of knowledge, provides a definition of belief consistent with the best work in this area, and explores the nature of belief structures as outlined by key researchers.
Abstract: Attention to the beliefs of teachers and teacher candidates should be a focus of educational research and can inform educational practice in ways that prevailing research agendas have not and cannot. The difficulty in studying teachers’ beliefs has been caused by definitional problems, poor conceptualizations, and differing understandings of beliefs and belief structures. This article examines the meaning prominent researchers give to beliefs and how this meaning differs from that of knowledge, provides a definition of belief consistent with the best work in this area, explores the nature of belief structures as outlined by key researchers, and offers a synthesis of findings about the nature of beliefs. The article argues that teachers’ beliefs can and should become an important focus of educational inquiry but that this will require clear conceptualizations, careful examination of key assumptions, consistent understandings and adherence to precise meanings, and proper assessment and investigation of spec...

8,257 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Learning-to-teach studies have been reviewed by as mentioned in this paper, who found that most of them focus on preservice teachers and only 13 deal with first-year or beginning teachers.
Abstract: I began this review with three objectives: (a) to determine whether recent learning-to-teach studies form a coherent body of literature, (b) to use any common themes that emerged from these studies to construct a model of professional growth for novice and beginning teachers, and (c) to draw inferences from the model concerning the nature of preservice teacher education programs likely to promote growth by capitalizing on naturally occurring processes and stages. I review 40 learning-to-teach studies published or presented between 1987 and 1991: 27 deal with preservice teachers, 13 with first-year or beginning teachers. All were naturalistic and qualitative in methodology. Studies within each of those divisions are clustered and summarized according to major themes that emerged from findings. The model I ultimately infer from the 40 studies confirms, explicates, and integrates Fuller’s (Fuller & Bown, 1975) developmental model of teacher concerns and Berliner’s (1988) model of teacher development based on...

2,172 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a descriptive synthesis of findings from 44 studies located for this review, including demographics and high-school background, motivation to teach and career expectations, confidence and optimism or anxiety and concerns about teaching, and perceptions of the roles and responsibilities of teachers.
Abstract: Characteristics of entering teacher candidates, defined as students enrolled in their first education course, have been the focus of 44 studies located for this review. Four major categories of variables have been studied: (a) demographics and high-school background; (b) motivation to teach and career expectations; (c) confidence and optimism or anxiety and concerns about teaching; and (d) perceptions of the roles and responsibilities of teachers. Most of the research employed a survey methodology. This article presents a descriptive synthesis of findings from these studies. The principle of thematic consistency with empirical variability—that is, that the general conclusions of the studies have been similar even though the data have shown differences from study to study—is advanced to organize a discussion of what is known about entering teacher candidates and suggestions for future research in this field.

677 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors provide an integrative and critical review of the guidance available for conducting validity inquiry in the context of performance assessment, highlighting the importance of investigating the consequences of assessment use and providing theoretical support for the move toward performance assessment.
Abstract: Recent developments in the philosophy of validity, highlighting the importance of investigating the consequences of assessment use, provide theoretical support for the move toward performance assessment. The problem for validity researchers is finding the appropriate set of criteria and standards to simultaneously support the validity of an assessment-based interpretation and the validity of its impact on the educational system. My intent is to provide an integrative and critical review of the guidance available for conducting validity inquiry in the context of performance assessment. In the first section is a summary of the emerging consensus among measurement scholars—not reflected in the 1985 Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (American Educational Research Association [AERA], American Psychological Association [APA], & National Council on Measurement in Education [NCME])—about the centrality of construct validity to the evaluation of any assessment-based interpretation and about the i...

454 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors discuss differences between beginning and experienced teachers in three broad domains of teaching tasks: preactive, interactive, and postactive, and make recommendations regarding what should be measured in performance-based assessments for teacher licensure.
Abstract: What does it mean to be a competent beginning teacher? This review melds findings from the literature on effective teaching with those of learning to teach in order to answer this question. It begins with a discussion of problems encountered in interpreting these bodies of research. Next, differences between beginning and experienced teachers are discussed in three broad domains of teaching tasks: preactive, interactive, and postactive. In the conclusion, recommendations are offered regarding what should be measured in performance-based assessments for teacher licensure.

445 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
Alan Feingold1
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined sex differences in variability on the national norms of several standardized test batteries and found that males were consistently more variable than females in quantitative reasoning, spatial visualization, spelling, and general knowledge.
Abstract: Contemporary research on sex differences in intellectual abilities has focused on male-female differences in average performance, implicitly assuming homogeneity of variance. To examine the validity of that assumption, this article examined sex differences in variability on the national norms of several standardized test batteries. Males were consistently more variable than females in quantitative reasoning, spatial visualization, spelling, and general knowledge. Because these sex differences in variability were coupled with corresponding sex differences in means, it was demonstrated that sex differences in variability and sex differences in central tendency have to be considered together to form correct conclusions about the magnitude of cognitive gender differences.

352 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present an analysis of the evidence from previous research regarding the benefits of parent involvement in early intervention programs and show that there is no convincing evidence that the ways in which parents have been involved in previous early intervention research studies result in more effective outcomes.
Abstract: It is widely believed that early intervention programs that involve parents are more effective than those that do not. After discussing the types of parent involvement programs that have been implemented in previous early intervention research and defining the benefits which are allegedly associated with the involvement of parents in early intervention programs, this article presents an analysis of the evidence from previous research regarding the alleged benefits. This analysis shows that there is no convincing evidence that the ways in which parents have been involved in previous early intervention research studies result in more effective outcomes. Possible reasons for the lack of observed benefits are offered, and suggestions are made for future research and practice.

236 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper examined the effect of students' physical attractiveness on a variety of judgments made in educational settings and found that physically attractive students are judged usually more favorably by teachers in a number of dimensions including intelligence, academic potential, grades, and various social skills.
Abstract: This article examines the effect of students’ physical attractiveness on a variety of judgments made in educational settings. This review discusses the following issues: (a) methodology for studying physical attractiveness in the classroom; (b) teacher judgments, expectations, and impressions of physically attractive students; and (c) the influence of moderator variables such as gender, race, conduct, and physical attractiveness effects. A descriptive and a meta-analytic review of the research indicated that physically attractive students are judged usually more favorably by teachers in a number of dimensions including intelligence, academic potential, grades, and various social skills. The potential influence of moderator variables—such as, student gender, race, and past performance on the physical attractiveness bias—is also examined. Finally, the possible mechanisms responsible for the attractiveness effect and the limitations of this research are discussed.

204 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: For example, this paper argued that the existing literature on learning to teach does not lead inexorably towards Kagan's conclusions, nor is the evidence across competing discourse communities of researchers on teacher education as clear and convincing as she suggests.
Abstract: These contrasting perspectives on teaching provide a convenient point of departure for my response to Kagan's review. How researchers frame teaching inevitably colors both the questions they choose to study and the models they create for teacher preparation. Kagan proposes a model of learning to teach that reflects the importance she places on mastery of procedural routines. Another body of research, either specifically excluded or otherwise omitted from her review, depicts teaching as centrally concerned with helping all students learn worthwhile content, within the context of a multicultural and pluralistic society. These studies do not necessarily support Kagan's developmental model; their findings complicate the narrative constructed by Kagan and cast doubt on the adequacy of her recommendations for teacher education. The existing literature on learning to teach does not lead inexorably towards Kagan's conclusions, nor is the evidence across competing discourse communities of researchers on teacher education as clear and convincing as she suggests. Kagan's review reflects one sector of the teacher education community. But there are other sectors. Some researchers on teacher education see the process of learning to teach through the lens of subject matter; others view teaching and learning to teach from an explicitly moral and ethical stance. The evidence, when considered in its entirety, is mixed. Ultimately, discussions of teacher education are informed as much by normative concerns as by empirical findings. The vision for teacher education held by many researchers differs from Kagan's. Many see teacher education as preparing prospective teachers not to adapt to existing conditions but to challenge current practices and to work for change. To claim, however, that research supports a developmental model, while excluding studies that challenge this model, misrepresents the full body of research on professional growth among preservice teachers.

173 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors reviewed the achievement effects of nongraded organization and concluded that cross-age grouping can have a positive impact on student achievement if crossage grouping is used to allow teachers to provide more direc...
Abstract: A nongraded elementary program is one in which children are flexibly grouped according to performance level, not age, and proceed through the elementary school at their own rates. Popular in the 1950s, 1960s, and early 1970s, the nongraded plan is returning today. This article reviews research on the achievement effects of nongraded organization. Results indicated consistent positive achievement effects of simple forms of nongrading generally developed early: cross-grade grouping for one subject (median ES = + .46) and cross-grade grouping for many subjects (median ES = + .34). Forms of nongrading making extensive use of individualization were less consistently successful (median ES = + .02). Studies of Individually Guided Education (IGE), which used nongrading and individualization, also produced inconsistent effects (median ES = + .11). The article concludes that nongraded organization can have a positive impact on student achievement if cross-age grouping is used to allow teachers to provide more direc...

150 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a comprehensive literature review revealed 66 reports involving science education for students with disabilities and found that instructional variables including study guides and text adaptations exhibited a positive effect on student learning, behavior, and motivation.
Abstract: A comprehensive literature review revealed 66 reports involving science education for students with disabilities. These investigations were subdivided into (a) instructional strategies—including, instructional variables, mnemonic techniques, and text adaptations—and (b) science curriculum evaluation or comparison reports and involved students of all disability areas. Overall, it was found that (a) instructional variables including study guides and text adaptations exhibited a positive effect on student learning, behavior, and motivation; (b) mnemonic strategies were very effective in facilitating verbal knowledge of scientific phenomena; and (c) activities-oriented science curricula generally were effective in facilitating knowledge of science content, manipulative skills, and science process skills. These reports support previous recommendations for science education for students with disabilities based on documented characteristics of these students. Findings are discussed with respect to the overall go...

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors argue that it is possible to augment advances previously made by examining how those who are principally and directly involved in the process of teaching and learning (that is, teachers and students) think as well as behave.
Abstract: The process of teaching and learning lies at the very heart of education. The more one knows about this process, the better one will be able to influence its growth and direction. The attempt to better understand the teaching and learning process has traditionally been dominated by behaviorist and positivist research paradigms. It is possible to augment advances previously made by examining how those who are principally and directly involved in the process of teaching and learning—that is, teachers and students—think as well as behave. Autobiography and repertory grid, it is argued, are two methods ideally suited to the purpose of elucidating the perspectives of teachers and students.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors reviewed issues related to transfer and knowledge specificity as articulated in psychology and then examined theory and research in composition and literary understanding which parallel the debate in psychology, and identified three positions that have emerged in literacy debates: the case for general knowledge, the case of task-specific knowledge, and a case for community-specific information.
Abstract: Psychologists have long debated the extent to which people transfer knowledge from context to context. This debate has emerged in the study of literacy where researchers of composition and literary understanding have begun to examine the extent to which different tasks require particular knowledge and the extent to which different interpretive communities require specific understandings. This article reviews issues related to transfer and knowledge specificity as articulated in psychology and then examines theory and research in composition and literary understanding which parallel the debate in psychology. The authors identify three positions that have emerged in literacy debates: the case for general knowledge, the case for task-specific knowledge, and the case for community-specific knowledge. Each position carries with it certain assumptions about learning and transfer, and each has clear implications for curriculum and instruction. The authors delineate the positions and the assumptions that drive th...

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In a field plagued by a lack of identity, the authors argue that practitioners and theorists are prevented from articulating viable perceptions of social studies' purpose, theory, and practice because they lack basic understandings of the original historical underpinnings of Social studies.
Abstract: In a field plagued by a lack of identity, I argue that practitioners and theorists are prevented from articulating viable perceptions of social studies’ purpose, theory, and practice because they lack basic understandings of the original historical underpinnings of social studies. As found in recent literature, three origin myths of social studies have emerged that hinder needed curricular research as well as mitigate against further development of social studies as a field of study. This review identifies and provides examples of these myths. In addition, while discounting each myth, I present a review of the field’s origins, as first developed in the 19th century social welfare movement and later refined by like-minded members of the National Education Association’s 1916 Committee on Social Studies (Dunn, 1916).

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Feingold has given us, in addition to an interesting analysis of data, a historical account of work on the variability hypothesis as discussed by the authors, but his account is oddly neutral, mentioning objections raised by feminists and others against the hypothesis, but leaving out the social history that aroused fiery passions and induced feminists to call it a "pernicious hypothesis."
Abstract: Alan Feingold has given us, in addition to an interesting analysis of data, a historical account of work on the variability hypothesis. His account is, however, oddly neutral. It mentions objections raised by feminists and others against the hypothesis, but it leaves out the social history that aroused fiery passions and induced feminists to call it a "pernicious hypothesis." I have been given some space to fill out that side of the story.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The quality of evaluation studies of the effects of bilingual education for language minority students, similar to the quality of educational evaluation in general, has been generally poor as discussed by the authors, and the lack of sound and practical guidelines and materials, which precludes adequate technical assistance, is one of the reasons for inferior quality evaluation practices.
Abstract: The quality of evaluation studies of the effects of bilingual education for language minority students, similar to the quality of educational evaluation in general, has been generally poor. This conclusion is based on the finding that, for the eight studies that reviewed the literature on the effectiveness of bilingual education, the mean percentage of evaluation or research reports which were judged methodologically acceptable for inclusion in these studies was 10% (median = 6%). A review of past and present publications, and federally funded projects, shows that some national efforts have been devoted to the improvement of bilingual education evaluation but that such efforts have apparently been unsuccessful. This article argues that the lack of sound and practical guidelines and materials, which precludes adequate technical assistance, is one cause of the inferior quality of evaluation practices. Other contributing factors are incompetent program evaluators, misinformed local administration, inappropri...

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Studies involving gender differences in cognitive ability have almost exclusively examined mean differences, and the creation of log-transformed variance ratios is a simple solution to this problem.
Abstract: Studies involving gender differences in cognitive ability have almost exclusively examined mean differences. In a recent article, Feingold (1992a) addressed this deficiency in the literature with an examination of variability differences between males and females on several cognitive test batteries. His analyses consisted of calculations of variance ratios: dividing male variances by female variances. Averaging these variance ratios, however, can yield misleading conclusions. The creation of log-transformed variance ratios is a simple solution to this problem.

Journal ArticleDOI
Alan Feingold1
TL;DR: The conclusions drawn by Cattell, Hall, Thorndike, and other early proponents of the greater male variability hypothesis-recounted in my article and in Noddings's sociohistorical commentary were not justified by the available data as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Research on gender differences has consistently been surrounded by controversy because of the political implications of the findings. The conclusions drawn by Cattell, Hall, Thorndike, and other early proponents of the greater male variability hypothesis-recounted in my article and in Noddings's sociohistorical commentarywere not justified by the available data. Their conclusions, which almost certainly predated their examinations of data, were essentially these scholars' personal beliefs about differences between the sexes and their political opinions regarding the roles of men and women in society. It is unfortunate that their views were passed off as scientific facts to maintain the status quo of their era. Noddings described my article as "oddly neutral." I prefer "appropriately scientific." The points she raised have all been noted before by others (who were duly referenced in my review), and there was no need to rehash them. Instead, I detailed the limitations of past analyses, conducted new analyses with superior data sets, and interpreted the results by today's more rigorous standards. The scope of my quantitative review was intentionally narrow, as its main objective was to make a data-based contribution to the literature.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The geometric mean is a descriptive statistic that shares the desirable properties of the mean logarithm in that it is not adversely affected by the arbitrary choice of numerator as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: In basing results on ratios of properties of two groups, it would be undesirable for conclusions to be affected by the arbitrary choice of which group’s properties should be the numerator and which the denominator. From this point of view, using means of ratios is undesirable; medians are somewhat better, and mean logarithms seem the best choice. The geometric mean is a descriptive statistic that shares the desirable properties of the mean logarithm in that it is not adversely affected by the arbitrary choice of numerator.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Feingold et al. as mentioned in this paper found that the median of a sample of VRs must be an unbiased estimate of the population VR when the null hypothesis is true (i.e., when there is homogeneity of variance in the population and when all variation among VRs in a sample drawn from that population is attributable to sampling error).
Abstract: In my article (Feingold, 1992a), I examined sex differences in variability of performance on cognitive tests by calculating the ratios of males' variances to females' variances. Thus, variance ratios (VRs) of 1.00 indicated homogeneity of variance, VRs greater than 1.00 indicated greater male variability, and VRs less than 1.00 indicated greater female variability. However, because each test was normed separately by grade and year, multiple male-female comparisons were conducted, yielding a set of VRs for each test. Thus, the VRs needed to be summarized to determine whether there was an overall sex difference in variability on each test. The median of a sample of VRs must be an unbiased estimate of the population VR when the null hypothesis is true (i.e., when there is homogeneity of variance in the population and when all variation among VRs in a sample drawn from that population is attributable to sampling error), because one group will-by chance-be more variable half of the time and the second group will be more variable the other half of the time. Thus, the expected value of a median VR, as of a single VR, is 1.00. However, VRs follow the Fdistribution (indeed, Fratios are variance ratios), which is positively skewed (Snedecor & Cochran, 1967). Therefore, when the null hypothesis is true, the mean (i.e., the arithmetic mean) VR is greater than the unbiased median VR, making the mean an inappropriate measure of central tendency for VRs. (The direction of the bias favors the group-males in my work-that is arbitrarily selected as the numerator of the VR.) A positively skewed distribution of scores (e.g., VRs) can be normalized via an appropriate transformation, such as a log transformation, that spreads out differences among values at the left tail of the distribution (Tukey, 1977). Thus, it is not wrong to calculate the mean of log-transformed VRs. However, because the mean and the median of a normal distribution of scores are the same, the mean logtransformed VR and the median log-transformed VR are comparable. Thus, both measures of central tendency yield essentially the same unbiased average in a sample of log-transformed VRs. Most important, a log transformation is a monotonic transformation-that is, a transformation that does not change the rank order of scores. Therefore, the median (which is a function of rank order) of a sample of logtransformed VRs equals the log-transformed median VR of the same sample. Thus, it is pointless to use a log transformation when VRs are summarized by medians because the outcome is identical whether or not the transformation is used (when the medians are expressed in a common metric). Moreover, because the mean and median are the same when the distribution is normal (and about the same when the distribution is nearly normal), the median log-transformed VR, the mean logtransformed VR, and the median VR are all about the same (when expressed in the same metric). Thus, there are no advantages in using the mean log-transformed VR instead of the median VR when the sole objective is to summarize VRs. Yet, there is one major disadvantage in using the mean log-transformed VR. The magnitude of