Showing papers in "Review of Educational Research in 1996"
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the contribution made by the self-efficacy component of Bandura's (1986) social cognitive theory to the study of self-regulation and motivation in academic settings.
Abstract: The purpose of this article is to examine the contribution made by the self-efficacy component of Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory to the study of self-regulation and motivation in academic settings. The difference between self-efficacy beliefs and other expectancy constructs is first explained, followed by a brief overview of problems in self-efficacy research. Findings on the relationship between self-efficacy, motivation constructs, and academic performances are then summarized. These findings demonstrate that particularized measures of self-efficacy that correspond to the criterial tasks with which they are compared surpass global measures in the explanation and prediction of related outcomes. The conceptual difference between the definition and use of expectancy beliefs in social cognitive theory and in expectancy value and self-concept theory is then clarified. Last, strategies to guide future research are offered.
4,166 citations
TL;DR: A universe of education production function studies was assembled in order to utilize meta-analytic methods to assess the direction and magnitude of the relations between a variety of school inputs and student achievement as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: A universe of education production function studies was assembled in order to utilize meta-analytic methods to assess the direction and magnitude of the relations between a variety of school inputs and student achievement. The 60 primary research studies aggregated data at the level of school districts or smaller units and either controlled for socioeconomic characteristics or were longitudinal in design. The analysis found that a broad range of resources were positively related to student outcomes, with effect sizes large enough to suggest that moderate increases in spending may be associated with significant increases in achievement. The discussion relates the findings of this study with trends in student achievement from the National Assessment of Educational Progress and changes in social capital over the last two decades.
1,534 citations
TL;DR: A review of various models of the relationship between research and teaching in universities is presented, and the evidence necessary to assess each model is outlined as mentioned in this paper, concluding that the relationship is zero.
Abstract: A review of various models of the relationship between research and teaching in universities is presented, and the evidence necessary to assess each model is outlined. A meta-analysis of 58 studies demonstrates that the relationship is zero. Suggestions for future directions are provided, and it is argued that a major goal could be to adopt strategies that enhance the relationship between research and teaching.
1,006 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors identify features of study skills interventions that are likely to lead to success and conduct a meta-analysis of 51 studies in which interventions aimed to enhance student learning by improving student use of either one or a combination of learning or study skills.
Abstract: The aim of this review is to identify features of study skills interventions that are likely to lead to success. Via a meta-analysis we examine 51 studies in which interventions aimed to enhance student learning by improving student use of either one or a combination of learning or study skills. Such interventions typically focused on task-related skills, self-management of learning, or affective components such as motivation and self-concept. Using the SOLO model (Biggs & Collis, 1982), we categorized the interventions (a) into four hierarchical levels of structural complexity and (b) as either near or far in terms of transfer. The results support the notion of situated cognition, whereby it is recommended that training other than for simple mnemonic performance should be in context, use tasks within the same domain as the target content, and promote a high degree of learner activity and metacognitive awareness.
989 citations
TL;DR: A review of 39 studies indicated that achievement test scores decline over summer vacation as discussed by the authors, and the effect of summer break was more detrimental for math than for reading and most detrimental for computation and spelling.
Abstract: A review of 39 studies indicated that achievement test scores decline over summer vacation. The results of the 13 most recent studies were combined using meta-analytic procedures. The meta-analysis indicated that the summer loss equaled about one month on a grade-level equivalent scale, or one tenth of a standard deviation relative to spring test scores. The effect of summer break was more detrimental for math than for reading and most detrimental for math computation and spelling. Also, middle-class students appeared to gain on grade-level equivalent reading recognition tests over summer while lower-class students lost on them. There were no moderating effects for student gender or race, but the negative effect of summer did increase with increases in students’ grade levels. Suggested explanations for the findings include the differential availability of opportunities to practice different academic material over summer (with reading practice more available than math practice) and differences in the mater...
906 citations
TL;DR: A review of intervention studies in which students have been taught to generate questions as a means of improving their comprehension can be found in this paper, where the cognitive strategy of generating questions about the material they had read resulted in gains in comprehension, as measured by tests given at the end of the intervention.
Abstract: This is a review of intervention studies in which students have been taught to generate questions as a means of improving their comprehension. Overall, teaching students the cognitive strategy of generating questions about the material they had read resulted in gains in comprehension, as measured by tests given at the end of the intervention. All tests were based on new material. The overall median effect size was 0.36 (64th percentile) when standardized tests were used and 0.86 (81st percentile) when experimenter-developed comprehension tests were used. The traditional skill-based instructional approach and the reciprocal teaching approach yielded similar results.
904 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the effects of within-class grouping on student achievement and other outcomes were quantitatively integrated using two sets of study findings, and the results indicated that the results favored homogeneous grouping; the average effect size was +0.12.
Abstract: The effects of within-class grouping on student achievement and other outcomes were quantitatively integrated using two sets of study findings. The first set included 145 effect sizes and explored the effects of grouping versus no grouping on several outcomes. Overall, the average achievement effect size was +0.17, favoring small-group learning. The second set included 20 effect sizes which directly compared the achievement effects of homogeneous versus heterogeneous ability grouping. Overall, the results favored homogeneous grouping; the average effect size was +0.12. The variability in both sets of study findings was heterogeneous, and the effects were explored further. To be maximally effective, within-class grouping practices require the adaptation of instruction methods and materials for small-group learning.
747 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a meta-analytic approach was used to summarize the statistical robustness literature on the Type I error properties of the Brown-Forsythe (Brown & Forsythe, 1974), James (1951) second-order, Kruskal-Wallis (Kruskal & Wallis, 1952), and Welch (19 51) tests.
Abstract: The presence of variance heterogeneity and nonnormality in educational and psychological data may frequently invalidate the use of the analysis of variance (ANOVA) F test in one-way independent groups designs. This article offers recommendations to applied researchers on the use of various parametric and nonparametric alternatives to the F test under assumption violation conditions. Meta-analytic techniques were used to summarize the statistical robustness literature on the Type I error properties of the Brown-Forsythe (Brown & Forsythe, 1974), James (1951) second-order, Kruskal-Wallis (Kruskal & Wallis, 1952), and Welch (1951) tests. Two variables, based on the theoretical work of Box (1954), are shown to be highly effective in deciding when a particular alternative procedure should be adopted. Based on the meta-analysis findings, it is recommended that researchers gain a clear understanding of the nature of their data before conducting statistical analyses. Of all of the procedures, the James and Welch ...
557 citations
TL;DR: A review of human capital theory can be found in this article, where the theoretical and empirical foundations of the field were articulated and established, starting in 1776 and ending in the 1960s.
Abstract: This review of human capital theory begins in 1776 and ends in the 1960s, when the theoretical and empirical foundations of the field were articulated and established. The review is organized to provide a general reference to human capital theory, its historical development, and its major methodological approaches. While human capital research has not been limited to education, it usually includes empirical measures of education and produces results that affect educators and education policy. Review of the foundation studies that were conceived by Nobel prize laureates and historically prominent economists supports the position that educators should draw their own informed conclusions and define the agenda of future human capital research.
508 citations
TL;DR: This article found that conflicts among students do occur frequently in schools (although the conflicts rarely result in serious injury), untrained students by and large use conflict strategies that create destructive outcomes by ignoring the importance of their ongoing relationships, and conflict resolution and peer mediation programs do seem to be effective in teaching students integrative negotiation and mediation procedures.
Abstract: Concern about violence in schools has been increasing, and, correspondingly, conflict resolution and peer mediation training programs have been proliferating. These programs have been developed by researchers in the field of conflict resolution, advocates of nonviolence, anti-nuclear-war activists, and members of the legal profession. It is unknown, however, whether the programs are needed and whether or not they are effective. While there are numerous methodological and conceptual problems with the research on conflict resolution and peer mediation programs, the current evidence indicates that (a) conflicts among students do occur frequently in schools (although the conflicts rarely result in serious injury); (b) untrained students by and large use conflict strategies that create destructive outcomes by ignoring the importance of their ongoing relationships; (c) conflict resolution and peer mediation programs do seem to be effective in teaching students integrative negotiation and mediation procedures; (...
384 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors relate the basic evidence on school effectiveness to the specific application of meta-analytic methods employed by Greenwald, Hedges, and Laine (1996), and their analysis, suffering from the narrowness of the inquiry inherent in their statistical methods, is also based on a highly selected sample of results that biases their analysis precisely toward their conclusions.
Abstract: Meta-analytic techniques for summarizing information about the relationship between school resources and student performance are capable only of addressing the narrow and uninteresting hypothesis that resources are never used effectively by schools. The data show clearly that resources are sometimes used effectively, although this happens infrequently and there is no description of the circumstances under which resources are used effectively. This article relates the basic evidence on school effectiveness to the specific application of meta-analytic methods employed by Greenwald, Hedges, and Laine (1996). Their analysis, suffering from the narrowness of the inquiry inherent in their statistical methods, is also based on a very highly selected sample of results that biases their analysis precisely toward their conclusions. As a result, their summary of existing work provides a distorted and misleading view of the potential implications of school resource policies. Both detailed econometric evidence and agg...
TL;DR: This paper provided a critical analysis of Cameron and Pierce's (1994) meta-analytic review of the experimental literature on the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation and suggested that their overly simplistic conclusion has little theoretical or practical value and is instead the direct consequence of their systematic and consistent misuse of metaanalytic procedures.
Abstract: This article provides a critical analysis of Cameron and Pierce’s (1994) meta-analytic review of the experimental literature on the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. It is suggested that Cameron and Pierce’s overly simplistic conclusion has little theoretical or practical value and is instead the direct consequence of their systematic and consistent misuse of meta-analytic procedures. A more nuanced analysis of the several different processes by which extrinsic rewards may affect motivation is also offered.
TL;DR: Cameron and Pierce's (1994) conclusion that rewards do not pose a threat to intrinsic motivation is a misrepresentation of the literature based on a flawed meta-analysis as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Cameron and Pierce’s (1994) conclusion that rewards do not pose a threat to intrinsic motivation is a misrepresentation of the literature based on a flawed meta-analysis. Their call to abandon cognitive evaluation theory is more an attempt to defend their behaviorist theoretical turf than a meaningful consideration of the relevant data and issues.
TL;DR: The authors show that the questions we asked are fundamental and that our meta-analytic techniques are appropriate, robust, and statistically correct, and that the results and conclusions of their meta-analysis are not alt...
Abstract: A prevailing view in education and social psychology is that rewards decrease a person’s intrinsic motivation. However, our meta-analysis (Cameron & Pierce, 1994) of approximately 100 studies does not support this position. The only negative effect of reward occurs under a highly restricted set of conditions, circumstances that are easily avoided. These results have not been well received by those who argue that rewards produce negative effects under a wide range of conditions. Lepper, Keavney, and Drake (1996), Ryan and Deci (1996), and Kohn (1996) have suggested that the questions asked in our meta-analysis were inappropriate, that critical studies were excluded, that important negative effects were not detected, and that the techniques used in our meta-analysis were unsuitable. In this response, we show that the questions we asked are fundamental and that our meta-analytic techniques are appropriate, robust, and statistically correct. In sum, the results and conclusions of our meta-analysis are not alt...
TL;DR: Cameron and Pierce as discussed by the authors argue that extrinsic rewards may not undermine intrinsic motivation, which is unpersuasive by virtue of its methodology, its tendency to ignore important distinctions, and its failure to include certain evidence.
Abstract: Cameron and Pierce’s meta-analysis (1994), which purports to demonstrate that extrinsic rewards may not undermine intrinsic motivation, is unpersuasive by virtue of its methodology, its tendency to ignore important distinctions, and its failure to include certain evidence.
Journal Article•
TL;DR: In this paper, Games et al. presented state-of-the-art multiple comparison procedures (MCPs) for a variety of research scenarios and sought to bring order to the seemingly chaotic array of MCPs being used at that time.
Abstract: In a highly regarded work, Games (1971) presented state-of-the-art multiple comparison procedures (MCPs) for a variety of research scenarios and sought to bring order to the seemingly chaotic array of MCPs being used at that time. The current article is a sequel of sorts, placing Games’s insights in the context of many of the major developments in simultaneous and sequential inference since his article’s publication. Specifically, we address the common MCP scenarios of orthogonal contrasts, nonorthogonal contrasts, comparisons against a reference group, all possible pairwise comparisons, and exploratory post hoc contrasts, all under the assumed conditions of independent scores, normality, and homogeneity of variance. In addition, discussions of the philosophical issues surrounding the control of Type I error rates are presented.
TL;DR: The authors reviewed writing research that implicates writing-speaking relationships by constructing two contrasting positions for organizing the research and understanding the relationships: (a) that writing differs from speaking, and (b) writing is similar to speaking.
Abstract: Both research in the field of writing and writing pedagogy have been built to a large extent on the premise that, as a fundamental discourse process, writing has critical connections to speaking. What those connections are has been debated by both researchers and teachers. This article reviews writing research that implicates writing-speaking relationships by constructing two contrasting positions for organizing the research and understanding the relationships: (a) that writing differs from speaking, and (b) that writing is similar to speaking. Research issues regarding integrating these positions are raised, and on the basis of the review a guideline is offered for future writing research, implicating the field of writing in concerns about teaching and learning in different academic and sociocultural contexts.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors argue that selection bias and lower-quality instruction should be included as part of the explanation for Simon Veenman's no-difference finding, and conclude that multigrade classes have at least a small negative effect on achievement as well as potentially negative effects on teacher motivation.
Abstract: Although Simon Veenman’s (1995) synthesis of research on multigrade and multi-age classes contributes important definitions and findings to the literature, his assessment of the effects of multigrade classes—the more common of these classroom structures—ignores two key factors: (a) selection bias and (b) lower-quality instruction. The omission of these two key factors and Veenman’s implicit advocacy of multi-age classes and cross-grade grouping render his no-difference conclusion problematic. In this article, we critique Veenman’s conclusion and explanations, and argue that selection bias and lower-quality instruction should be included as part of the explanation for his no-difference finding. We conclude that multigrade classes have at least a small negative effect on achievement as well as potentially negative effects on teacher motivation. We suggest that researchers examine more carefully the conditions under which student achievement and affect may be fostered in this classroom structure.
TL;DR: The authors show that publication bias does not substantially influence the interpretation of meta-analytic results and that the best evidence, upon close inspection and the application of appropriate statistical methodology, demonstrates that student achievement is related to resource availability.
Abstract: Hanushek’s (1996) comment illuminates some of the ways in which he differs from us in approach and interpretation. Hanushek misunderstands the interpretation of meta-analytic results when (as in the present case) studies produce a range of different, but positive effects. We disagree with Hanushek on the role of statistical independence. While we do not regard multiple analyses of data on the same individuals to be as informative as analyses of independent data sets, Hanushek treats the two as equivalent. While publication bias remains a concern in research, we show that even overcompensating for its likely effects does not substantially influence our results. While disagreements persist, scholarly debate should not obscure the fact that the best evidence, upon close inspection and the application of appropriate statistical methodology, demonstrates that student achievement is related to resource availability.
TL;DR: In this paper, Games et al. presented state-of-the-art multiple comparison procedures (MCPs) for a variety of research scenarios and sought to bring order to the seemingly chaotic array of MCPs being used at that time.
Abstract: In a highly regarded work, Games (1971) presented state-of-the-art multiple comparison procedures (MCPs) for a variety of research scenarios and sought to bring order to the seemingly chaotic array of MCPs being used at that time. The current article is a sequel of sorts, placing Games’s insights in the context of many of the major developments in simultaneous and sequential inference since his article’s publication. Specifically, we address the common MCP scenarios of orthogonal contrasts, nonorthogonal contrasts, comparisons against a reference group, all possible pairwise comparisons, and exploratory post hoc contrasts, all under the assumed conditions of independent scores, normality, and homogeneity of variance. In addition, discussions of the philosophical issues surrounding the control of Type I error rates are presented.
TL;DR: In this paper, a reanalysis of the available multigrade and multi-age studies shows the average weighted effect sizes to be essentially zero or close to zero, for all analyses, the confidence intervals around the average effect sizes included zero.
Abstract: In response to “Cognitive and Noncognitive Effects of Multigrade and Multi-Age Classes: A Best-Evidence Synthesis” (Veenman, 1995), Mason and Burns (1996) report that their research and review of the literature has led them to conclude that multigrade classes have a slightly negative effect on student achievement. They argue, moreover, that multigrade classes generally have better students and perhaps better teachers and that this selection bias masks the negative effects of less effective instruction in multigrade classes. In this rejoinder, a reanalysis, based on meta-analytic procedures, of the available multigrade and multi-age studies shows the average weighted effect sizes to be essentially zero or close to zero. For all analyses, the confidence intervals around the average effect sizes included zero. These results provide little support for the assumption that the quality of instruction in multigrade classes is lower than in single-grade classes. Between-study differences revealed that favorable co...
TL;DR: In this paper, nine types of errors occurring in three stages of the process of synthesizing research are described and illustrated with examples from a recent synthesis (Kagan, 1992) of research on teacher professional growth.
Abstract: Nine types of errors occurring in three stages of the process of synthesizing research are described and illustrated with examples from a recent synthesis (Kagan, 1992) of research on teacher professional growth. Errors can occur in the initial identification and collection of reports of research, in the analysis of documents, and in the final stage of reaching generalizations about the whole body of research. Types of errors include the exclusion of relevant literature, wrongly reporting details such as sample size, erroneously attributing findings to studies, and stating unwarranted conclusions about the research reviewed. Implications for reviewers and users of reviews are considered.
TL;DR: In terms of maximizing power while adequately controlling Type I error rates over the widest variety of conditions, empirical literature suggests use of (a) the Wilcox (1992) H to test the univariate H0: μ1 = μ2, (b) theWilcox (1993a) Z as mentioned in this paper, (c) either the Kim (1992), the James (1954) second-order, or the Johansen (1980) procedure, and (d) either Coombs-Algina U* (Coombs & Algina, in press-
Abstract: When independent random samples are selected from normal (multivariate normal) populations with equal variances (covariance matrices) to test the equality of population means (mean vectors), the choice at each level of the omnibus hypothesis is clear: independent samples t, ANOVA F, Hotelling’s T2, or MANOVA. Population variances (covariance matrices) that are not necessarily equal, however, cloud the picture. In terms of maximizing power while adequately controlling Type I error rates over the widest variety of conditions, empirical literature suggests use of (a) the Wilcox (1992) H to test the univariate H0: μ1 = μ2, (b) the Wilcox (1993a) Z to test the univariate H0: μ1 = μ2 = ... = μG,(c) either the Kim (1992), the James (1954) second-order, or the Johansen (1980) procedure to test the multivariate H0: μ1 = μ2, and (d) either the Coombs-Algina U* (Coombs & Algina, in press-a), the James (1954) second-order, or the Johansen (1980) procedure to test the multivariate H0: μ1 = μ2 = ... = μG.
TL;DR: It is argued that modern information systems allow richer educational activities, research-based methods, and multiage schooling to proceed efficiently and effectively and creates a moral imperative to provide real learning opportunities to the whole of the student population.
Abstract: We propose a reengineering of the educational system that focuses on mastery and on more substantial learning activities and eliminates the constraints on learning that arise from the current insistence on grouping children by age. Our basic argument is that eliminating the age-based approach to education has striking advantages that outweigh any social disadvantage. Age-based grouping is, in historical terms, a recent reaction, driven initially by social trends that grew partly out of the realization that children pass through developmental stages and even more out of a wave of superficial approaches to efficiency that attended the beginning of mass production in industry. Through most of history, age grouping has been minimal. We think there are good reasons for this, which we discuss below. The most powerful reason is the extremely large variance found in any index of learning achievement, even in relatively homogeneous populations. We further argue that modern information systems allow richer educatio...
TL;DR: Whether each manuscript would advance educational research by providing researchers with "a good story" or reject the manuscript as inappropriate or below standard is attempted.
Abstract: In the course of our three-year term (1993-1996) as editors of the Review of Educational Research (Volumes 64-66), we were sent 284 manuscripts by authors who believed, presumably, that their labors resulted in scholarly contributions to our field. A number of these manuscripts (89) were not reviews of the research literature but single experiments, or did not meet the minimal criteria for articles RER publishes (Murray & Raths, 1994); these were returned to their authors. The remaining 155 manuscripts were sent by us to 384 researchers in our field for their evaluation on seven criteria: (a) quality of the literature reviewed, (b) significance of the topic, (c) potential impact of the review on research and practice, (d) contribution to the field, (e) appropriate length, (f) clarity of expression, and (g) balance and fairness. Finally, we asked each reviewer for a recommendation on whether to accept the manuscript for publication, accept the manuscript but request minor revisions from the author, reject the manuscript but request substantial revision and resubmission from the author, or reject the manuscript as inappropriate or below standard. Based upon what our reviewers told us, and occasionally in consultation with other colleagues, we attempted to determine whether each manuscript would advance educational research by providing researchers with \"a good story\" (Murray & Raths, 1994, p. 199) about a mature body of literature—its findings (What question did the review answer?), structure (Did the review provide a framework to help resolve the pro and con discrepancies in the literature?), and finally the meaning of the review for the field (Murray & Raths, 1994). Our assumption, shared by the American Educational Research Association (AERA) and many other academic associations, was that our reviewers were experts in the areas in which they agreed to review and that their expertise could guide us toward a correct and sound decision about which of the manuscripts we reviewed should be shared with the 17,000 subscribers to RER. We concluded that 55 should be published (about 20%). Of the 384 reviewers we engaged in the RER review process, 23% were unable to accept the assignment (they typically claimed that they were too busy with other matters), and the remainder are acknowledged in Volumes 64 to 66 of RER? The majority of the reviewers were able to return their reviews in less than 40 days. Members of AERA, incidentally, were slightly more willing to review than nonmembers of AERA.
TL;DR: The Review of Educational Research (RER) as mentioned in this paper is a forum for reviews of previously published work in a field that is populated by scholars from diverse traditions, and it has been used widely in the literature.
Abstract: The Review of Educational Research (RER) is a forum for reviews of previously published work in a field that is populated by scholars from diverse traditions. Because of the increasing complexity of issues facing education and the varied perspectives that can be used to examine them, it is important that we develop tools that help scholars, policymakers, and others to make decisions and take action. We believe a review is this kind of tool.