Showing papers in "Reviews of Modern Physics in 2009"
TL;DR: In this paper, the basic theoretical aspects of graphene, a one-atom-thick allotrope of carbon, with unusual two-dimensional Dirac-like electronic excitations, are discussed.
Abstract: This article reviews the basic theoretical aspects of graphene, a one-atom-thick allotrope of carbon, with unusual two-dimensional Dirac-like electronic excitations. The Dirac electrons can be controlled by application of external electric and magnetic fields, or by altering sample geometry and/or topology. The Dirac electrons behave in unusual ways in tunneling, confinement, and the integer quantum Hall effect. The electronic properties of graphene stacks are discussed and vary with stacking order and number of layers. Edge (surface) states in graphene depend on the edge termination (zigzag or armchair) and affect the physical properties of nanoribbons. Different types of disorder modify the Dirac equation leading to unusual spectroscopic and transport properties. The effects of electron-electron and electron-phonon interactions in single layer and multilayer graphene are also presented.
20,824 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a wide list of topics ranging from opinion and cultural and language dynamics to crowd behavior, hierarchy formation, human dynamics, and social spreading are reviewed and connections between these problems and other, more traditional, topics of statistical physics are highlighted.
Abstract: Statistical physics has proven to be a fruitful framework to describe phenomena outside the realm of traditional physics. Recent years have witnessed an attempt by physicists to study collective phenomena emerging from the interactions of individuals as elementary units in social structures. A wide list of topics are reviewed ranging from opinion and cultural and language dynamics to crowd behavior, hierarchy formation, human dynamics, and social spreading. The connections between these problems and other, more traditional, topics of statistical physics are highlighted. Comparison of model results with empirical data from social systems are also emphasized.
3,840 citations
TL;DR: Essential theoretical tools that have been developed to assess the security of the main experimental platforms are presented (discrete- variable, continuous-variable, and distributed-phase-reference protocols).
Abstract: Quantum key distribution (QKD) is the first quantum information task to reach the level of mature technology, already fit for commercialization. It aims at the creation of a secret key between authorized partners connected by a quantum channel and a classical authenticated channel. The security of the key can in principle be guaranteed without putting any restriction on an eavesdropper's power. This article provides a concise up-to-date review of QKD, biased toward the practical side. Essential theoretical tools that have been developed to assess the security of the main experimental platforms are presented (discrete-variable, continuous-variable, and distributed-phase-reference protocols).
2,926 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the surface forces that lead to wetting are considered, and the equilibrium surface coverage of a substrate in contact with a drop of liquid is examined, while the hydrodynamics of both wetting and dewetting is influenced by the presence of the three-phase contact line separating "wet" regions from those that are either dry or covered by a microscopic film.
Abstract: Wetting phenomena are ubiquitous in nature and technology. A solid substrate exposed to the environment is almost invariably covered by a layer of fluid material. In this review, the surface forces that lead to wetting are considered, and the equilibrium surface coverage of a substrate in contact with a drop of liquid. Depending on the nature of the surface forces involved, different scenarios for wetting phase transitions are possible; recent progress allows us to relate the critical exponents directly to the nature of the surface forces which lead to the different wetting scenarios. Thermal fluctuation effects, which can be greatly enhanced for wetting of geometrically or chemically structured substrates, and are much stronger in colloidal suspensions, modify the adsorption singularities. Macroscopic descriptions and microscopic theories have been developed to understand and predict wetting behavior relevant to microfluidics and nanofluidics applications. Then the dynamics of wetting is examined. A drop, placed on a substrate which it wets, spreads out to form a film. Conversely, a nonwetted substrate previously covered by a film dewets upon an appropriate change of system parameters. The hydrodynamics of both wetting and dewetting is influenced by the presence of the three-phase contact line separating "wet" regions from those that are either dry or covered by a microscopic film only. Recent theoretical, experimental, and numerical progress in the description of moving contact line dynamics are reviewed, and its relation to the thermodynamics of wetting is explored. In addition, recent progress on rough surfaces is surveyed. The anchoring of contact lines and contact angle hysteresis are explored resulting from surface inhomogeneities. Further, new ways to mold wetting characteristics according to technological constraints are discussed, for example, the use of patterned surfaces, surfactants, or complex fluids.
2,501 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the basic physics of laser pulse evolution in underdense plasmas is also reviewed, including the propagation, self-focusing, and guiding of laser pulses in uniform density channels and with preformed density channels.
Abstract: Laser-driven plasma-based accelerators, which are capable of supporting fields in excess of 100 GV/m, are reviewed. This includes the laser wakefield accelerator, the plasma beat wave accelerator, the self-modulated laser wakefield accelerator, plasma waves driven by multiple laser pulses, and highly nonlinear regimes. The properties of linear and nonlinear plasma waves are discussed, as well as electron acceleration in plasma waves. Methods for injecting and trapping plasma electrons in plasma waves are also discussed. Limits to the electron energy gain are summarized, including laser pulse diffraction, electron dephasing, laser pulse energy depletion, and beam loading limitations. The basic physics of laser pulse evolution in underdense plasmas is also reviewed. This includes the propagation, self-focusing, and guiding of laser pulses in uniform plasmas and with preformed density channels. Instabilities relevant to intense short-pulse laser-plasma interactions, such as Raman, self-modulation, and hose instabilities, are discussed. Experiments demonstrating key physics, such as the production of high-quality electron bunches at energies of 0.1-1 GeV, are summarized.
2,108 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the nuclear forces can be derived using effective chiral Lagrangians consistent with the symmetries of QCD, and the status of the calculations for two and three nucleon forces and their applications in few-nucleon systems are reviewed.
Abstract: Nuclear forces can be systematically derived using effective chiral Lagrangians consistent with the symmetries of QCD. I review the status of the calculations for two- and three-nucleon forces and their applications in few-nucleon systems. I also address issues like the quark mass dependence of the nuclear forces and resonance saturation for four-nucleon operators.
1,455 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the Nusselt number and the Reynolds number depend on the Rayleigh number Ra and the Prandtl number Pr, and the thicknesses of the thermal and the kinetic boundary layers scale with Ra and Pr.
Abstract: The progress in our understanding of several aspects of turbulent Rayleigh-Benard convection is reviewed. The focus is on the question of how the Nusselt number and the Reynolds number depend on the Rayleigh number Ra and the Prandtl number Pr, and on how the thicknesses of the thermal and the kinetic boundary layers scale with Ra and Pr. Non-Oberbeck-Boussinesq effects and the dynamics of the large scale convection roll are addressed as well. The review ends with a list of challenges for future research on the turbulent Rayleigh-Benard system.
1,372 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the constructive role of Brownian motion is exemplified for various physical and technological setups, which are inspired by the cellular molecular machinery: the working principles and characteristics of stylized devices are discussed to show how fluctuations, either thermal or extrinsic, can be used to control diffusive particle transport.
Abstract: In systems possessing spatial or dynamical symmetry breaking, Brownian motion combined with unbiased external input signals, deterministic and random alike, can assist directed motion of particles at submicron scales. In such cases, one speaks of ``Brownian motors.'' In this review the constructive role of Brownian motion is exemplified for various physical and technological setups, which are inspired by the cellular molecular machinery: the working principles and characteristics of stylized devices are discussed to show how fluctuations, either thermal or extrinsic, can be used to control diffusive particle transport. Recent experimental demonstrations of this concept are surveyed with particular attention to transport in artificial, i.e., nonbiological, nanopores, lithographic tracks, and optical traps, where single-particle currents were first measured. Much emphasis is given to two- and three-dimensional devices containing many interacting particles of one or more species; for this class of artificial motors, noise rectification results also from the interplay of particle Brownian motion and geometric constraints. Recently, selective control and optimization of the transport of interacting colloidal particles and magnetic vortices have been successfully achieved, thus leading to the new generation of microfluidic and superconducting devices presented here. The field has recently been enriched with impressive experimental achievements in building artificial Brownian motor devices that even operate within the quantum domain by harvesting quantum Brownian motion. Sundry akin topics include activities aimed at noise-assisted shuttling other degrees of freedom such as charge, spin, or even heat and the assembly of chemical synthetic molecular motors. This review ends with a perspective for future pathways and potential new applications.
1,319 citations
TL;DR: The dynamics and stability of thin liquid films have fascinated scientists over many decades: the observations of regular wave patterns in film flows along a windowpane or along guttering, the patterning of dewetting droplets, and the fingering of viscous flows down a slope are all examples that are familiar in daily life.
Abstract: The dynamics and stability of thin liquid films have fascinated scientists over many decades: the observations of regular wave patterns in film flows down a windowpane or along guttering, the patterning of dewetting droplets, and the fingering of viscous flows down a slope are all examples that are familiar in daily life. Thin film flows occur over a wide range of length scales and are central to numerous areas of engineering, geophysics, and biophysics; these include nanofluidics and microfluidics, coating flows, intensive processing, lava flows, dynamics of continental ice sheets, tear-film rupture, and surfactant replacement therapy. These flows have attracted considerable attention in the literature, which have resulted in many significant developments in experimental, analytical, and numerical research in this area. These include advances in understanding dewetting, thermocapillary- and surfactant-driven films, falling films and films flowing over structured, compliant, and rapidly rotating substrates, and evaporating films as well as those manipulated via use of electric fields to produce nanoscale patterns. These developments are reviewed in this paper and open problems and exciting research avenues in this thriving area of fluid mechanics are also highlighted.
1,226 citations
TL;DR: Fluctuation theorems (FTs) as discussed by the authors describe some universal properties of nonequilibrium fluctuations and are derived from a quantum perspective by introducing a two-point measurement on the system.
Abstract: Fluctuation theorems (FTs), which describe some universal properties of nonequilibrium fluctuations, are examined from a quantum perspective and derived by introducing a two-point measurement on the system. FTs for closed and open systems driven out of equilibrium by an external time-dependent force, and for open systems maintained in a nonequilibrium steady state by nonequilibrium boundary conditions, are derived from a unified approach. Applications to fermion and boson transport in quantum junctions are discussed. Quantum master equations and Green's functions techniques for computing the energy and particle statistics are presented.
1,203 citations
TL;DR: The development of wave optics for light brought many new insights into our understanding of physics, driven by fundamental experiments like the ones by Young, Fizeau, Michelson-Morley and others as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: The development of wave optics for light brought many new insights into our understanding of physics, driven by fundamental experiments like the ones by Young, Fizeau, Michelson-Morley and others. Quantum mechanics, and especially the de Broglie’s postulate relating the momentum p of a particle to the wave vector k of an matter wave: k = 2 λ = p/ℏ, suggested that wave optical experiments should be also possible with massive particles (see table 1), and over the last 40 years electron and neutron interferometers have demonstrated many fundamental aspects of quantum mechanics [1].
TL;DR: In this article, the authors discuss the implications of a heavy supersymmetric model for particle physics and cosmology, including an extended Higgs sector, extended neutralino sector, and solution to the problem in supersymmetry, exotic fermions needed for anomaly cancellation.
Abstract: The $\mathrm{U}{(1)}^{\ensuremath{'}}$ symmetry associated with a possible heavy ${Z}^{\ensuremath{'}}$ would have profound implications for particle physics and cosmology. The motivations for such particles in various extensions of the standard model, possible ranges for their masses and couplings, and classes of anomaly-free models are discussed. Present limits from electroweak and collider experiments are briefly surveyed, as are prospects for discovery and diagnostic study at future colliders. Implications of a ${Z}^{\ensuremath{'}}$ are discussed, including an extended Higgs sector, extended neutralino sector, and solution to the $\ensuremath{\mu}$ problem in supersymmetry; exotic fermions needed for anomaly cancellation; possible flavor changing neutral current effects; neutrino mass; possible ${Z}^{\ensuremath{'}}$ mediation of supersymmetry breaking; and cosmological implications for cold dark matter and electroweak baryogenesis.
TL;DR: In this paper, a review of the latest developments in continuous-variable quantum-state tomography of optical fields and photons, placing a special emphasis on its practical aspects and applications in quantum information technology, is presented.
Abstract: This review covers the latest developments in continuous-variable quantum-state tomography of optical fields and photons, placing a special emphasis on its practical aspects and applications in quantum-information technology. Optical homodyne tomography is reviewed as a method of reconstructing the state of light in a given optical mode. A range of relevant practical topics is discussed, such as state-reconstruction algorithms (with emphasis on the maximum-likelihood technique), the technology of time-domain homodyne detection, mode-matching issues, and engineering of complex quantum states of light. The paper also surveys quantum-state tomography for the transverse spatial state (spatial mode) of the field in the special case of fields containing precisely one photon.
TL;DR: In this paper, the Bogoliubov equation is applied to the formation of a Bose-Einstein condensate in a box and in a harmonic trap, along with the dynamics of small-amplitude perturbations.
Abstract: After reviewing the ideal Bose-Einstein gas in a box and in a harmonic trap, the effect of interactions on the formation of a Bose-Einstein condensate are discussed, along with the dynamics of small-amplitude perturbations (the Bogoliubov equations). When the condensate rotates with angular velocity $\ensuremath{\Omega}$, one or several vortices nucleate, leading to many observable consequences. With more rapid rotation, the vortices form a dense triangular array, and the collective behavior of these vortices has additional experimental implications. For $\ensuremath{\Omega}$ near the radial trap frequency ${\ensuremath{\omega}}_{\ensuremath{\perp}}$, the lowest-Landau-level approximation becomes applicable, providing a simple picture of such rapidly rotating condensates. Eventually, as $\ensuremath{\Omega}\ensuremath{\rightarrow}{\ensuremath{\omega}}_{\ensuremath{\perp}}$, the rotating dilute gas is expected to undergo a quantum phase transition from a superfluid to various highly correlated (nonsuperfluid) states analogous to those familiar from the fractional quantum Hall effect for electrons in a strong perpendicular magnetic field.
TL;DR: Complex (dusty) plasmas are composed of a weakly ionized gas and charged microparticles and represent the plasma state of soft matter as discussed by the authors, and they can be easily manipulated in different ways, also at the level of individual particles.
Abstract: Complex (dusty) plasmas are composed of a weakly ionized gas and charged microparticles and represent the plasma state of soft matter. Complex plasmas have several remarkable features: Dynamical time scales associated with microparticles are ``stretched'' to tens of milliseconds, yet the microparticles themselves can be easily visualized individually. Furthermore, since the background gas is dilute, the particle dynamics in strongly coupled complex plasmas is virtually undamped, which provides a direct analogy to regular liquids and solids in terms of the atomistic dynamics. Finally, complex plasmas can be easily manipulated in different ways---also at the level of individual particles. Altogether, this gives us a unique opportunity to go beyond the limits of continuous media and study---at the kinetic level---various generic processes occurring in liquids or solids, in regimes ranging from the onset of cooperative phenomena to large strongly coupled systems. In the first part of the review some of the basic and new physics are highlighted which complex plasmas enable us to study, and in the second (major) part strong coupling phenomena in an interdisciplinary context are examined. The connections with complex fluids are emphasized and a number of generic liquid and solid-state issues are addressed. In summary, application oriented research is discussed.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors developed accurate x-ray scattering techniques to measure the physical properties of dense plasmas for applications in high energy density physics, including inertial confinement fusion, material science, or laboratory astrophysics.
Abstract: Accurate x-ray scattering techniques to measure the physical properties of dense plasmas have been developed for applications in high energy density physics. This class of experiments produces short-lived hot dense states of matter with electron densities in the range of solid density and higher where powerful penetrating x-ray sources have become available for probing. Experiments have employed laser-based x-ray sources that provide sufficient photon numbers in narrow bandwidth spectral lines, allowing spectrally resolved x-ray scattering measurements from these plasmas. The backscattering spectrum accesses the noncollective Compton scattering regime which provides accurate diagnostic information on the temperature, density, and ionization state. The forward scattering spectrum has been shown to measure the collective plasmon oscillations. Besides extracting the standard plasma parameters, density and temperature, forward scattering yields new observables such as a direct measure of collisions and quantum effects. Dense matter theory relates scattering spectra with the dielectric function and structure factors that determine the physical properties of matter. Applications to radiation-heated and shock-compressed matter have demonstrated accurate measurements of compression and heating with up to picosecond temporal resolution. The ongoing development of suitable x-ray sources and facilities will enable experiments in a wide range of research areas including inertial confinement fusion,more » radiation hydrodynamics, material science, or laboratory astrophysics.« less
TL;DR: In this paper, a review of the recent progress at the intersection of experiment and theory has been achieved in the last few years, including a critical assessment of the proposed approaches to the resolution of the puzzles arising in the applications of the Lifshitz theory of the van der Waals and Casimir forces to real materials.
Abstract: The physical origin of the Casimir force is connected with the existence of zero-point and thermal fluctuations. The Casimir effect is very general and finds applications in various fields of physics. This review is limited to the rapid progress at the intersection of experiment and theory that has been achieved in the last few years. It includes a critical assessment of the proposed approaches to the resolution of the puzzles arising in the applications of the Lifshitz theory of the van der Waals and Casimir forces to real materials. All the primary experiments on the measurement of the Casimir force between macroscopic bodies and the Casimir-Polder force between an atom and a wall that have been performed in the last decade are reviewed, including the theory needed for their interpretation. The methodology for the comparison between experiment and theory in the force-distance measurements is presented. The experimental and theoretical results described here provide a deeper understanding of the phenomenon of dispersion forces in real materials and offer guidance for the application of the Lifshitz theory to the interpretation of the measurement results.
TL;DR: In this paper, the history of the second law of thermodynamics and its consequences in quantum information theory are discussed. But the focus is on the role of information, illuminated by Maxwell's demon, in the arena of quantum information.
Abstract: Maxwell's demon was born in 1867 and still thrives in modern physics. He plays important roles in clarifying the connections between two theories: thermodynamics and information. Here the history of the demon and a variety of interesting consequences of the second law of thermodynamics are presented, mainly in quantum mechanics, but also in the theory of gravity. Also highlighted are some of the recent work that explores the role of information, illuminated by Maxwell's demon, in the arena of quantum-information theory.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the field of the EPR gedanken experiment, from the original paper of Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen, through to modern theoretical proposals of how to realize both the continuous-variable and discrete versions of EPR paradox.
Abstract: This Colloquium examines the field of the Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen (EPR) gedanken experiment, from the original paper of Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen, through to modern theoretical proposals of how to realize both the continuous-variable and discrete versions of the EPR paradox. The relationship with entanglement and Bell's theorem are analyzed, and the progress to date towards experimental confirmation of the EPR paradox is summarized, with a detailed treatment of the continuous-variable paradox in laser-based experiments. Practical techniques covered include continuous-wave parametric amplifier and optical fiber quantum soliton experiments. Current proposals for extending EPR experiments to massive-particle systems are discussed, including spin squeezing, atomic position entanglement, and quadrature entanglement in ultracold atoms. Finally, applications of this technology to quantum key distribution, quantum teleportation, and entanglement swapping are examined.
TL;DR: The experimental status of the study of the superconducting phases of $f$-electron compounds is reviewed in this paper, where superconductivity has been found at the border of magnetic order as well as deep within ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetically ordered states.
Abstract: Intermetallic compounds containing $f$-electron elements display a wealth of superconducting phases, which are prime candidates for unconventional pairing with complex order parameter symmetries. For instance, superconductivity has been found at the border of magnetic order as well as deep within ferromagnetically and antiferromagnetically ordered states, suggesting that magnetism may promote rather than destroy superconductivity. Superconducting phases near valence transitions or in the vicinity of magnetopolar order are candidates for new superconductive pairing interactions such as fluctuations of the conduction electron density or the crystal electric field, respectively. The experimental status of the study of the superconducting phases of $f$-electron compounds is reviewed.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors reviewed statistical models for money, wealth, and income distributions developed in the econophysics literature since the late 1990s and showed that the probability distribution of money is exponential for certain classes of models with interacting economic agents.
Abstract: This Colloquium reviews statistical models for money, wealth, and income distributions developed in the econophysics literature since the late 1990s. By analogy with the Boltzmann-Gibbs distribution of energy in physics, it is shown that the probability distribution of money is exponential for certain classes of models with interacting economic agents. Alternative scenarios are also reviewed. Data analysis of the empirical distributions of wealth and income reveals a two-class distribution. The majority of the population belongs to the lower class, characterized by the exponential (``thermal'') distribution, whereas a small fraction of the population in the upper class is characterized by the power-law (``superthermal'') distribution. The lower part is very stable, stationary in time, whereas the upper part is highly dynamical and out of equilibrium.
TL;DR: In this paper, the underlying physics of different forces that act on a charged dust grain is reviewed, including wakefield and ion focusing effects and dipole-dipole interactions between unevenly charged dust rods.
Abstract: Dusty plasmas are ubiquitous in low-temperature laboratory discharges as well as in the near-earth environment, planetary rings, and interstellar spaces. In this paper, updated knowledge of fundamentals of collective dust-plasma interactions and several novel phenomena are presented that have been observed in laboratories and in space dusty plasmas. Mechanisms that are responsible for the charging of dust grains are discussed, and the fact that the dust charge perturbation is a new dynamical variable in a dusty plasma. The underlying physics of different forces that act on a charged dust grain is reviewed. In dusty plasmas, there are new attractive forces (e.g., due to wakefield and ion focusing effects and dipole-dipole interactions between unevenly charged dust rods). Furthermore, in the presence of an ensemble of charged dust grains, there are collective dust-plasma interactions featuring new waves (e.g., the dust acoustic wave, the dust ion-acoustic wave, the dust lattice wave, etc.), new instabilities, and coherent nonlinear structures (dust acoustic and dust ion-acoustic shocks, dust voids, and dust vortices), which are also discussed. Theoretical models for numerous collective dust-plasma interactions are compared with existing observations from laboratories and space environments.
TL;DR: In this article, a review compiles and analyzes progress in the understanding of the electronic and magnetic structure of the $5f$ states in actinide metals, focusing on electron energy-loss spectroscopy and many-electron atomic spectral calculations.
Abstract: Actinide elements produce a plethora of interesting physical behaviors due to the $5f$ states. This review compiles and analyzes progress in the understanding of the electronic and magnetic structure of the $5f$ states in actinide metals. Particular interest is given to electron energy-loss spectroscopy and many-electron atomic spectral calculations, since there is now an appreciable library of core $d\ensuremath{\rightarrow}\text{valence}$ $f$ transitions for Th, U, Np, Pu, Am, and Cm. These results are interwoven and discussed against published experimental data, such as x-ray photoemission and absorption spectroscopy, transport measurements, and electron, x-ray, and neutron diffraction, as well as theoretical results, such as density-functional theory and dynamical mean-field theory.
TL;DR: A comprehensive review of the current understanding of the structure and physical properties of the intergalactic medium and its relation to galaxies is presented in this paper, concluding with comments on prospects for furthering the study of the IGM using future ground-based facilities and space-based experiments.
Abstract: Intergalactic space is filled with a pervasive medium of ionized gas, the intergalactic medium (IGM). A residual neutral fraction is detected in the spectra of quasistellar objects at both low and high redshifts, revealing a highly fluctuating medium with temperatures characteristic of photoionized gas. The statistics of the fluctuations are well reproduced by numerical gravity-hydrodynamics simulations within the context of standard cosmological structure formation scenarios. Thus, the study of the IGM offers an opportunity to probe the nature of the primordial density fluctuations on scales unavailable to other methods. The simulations also suggest that the IGM is the dominant reservoir of baryons produced by the Big Bang, and so the principal source of the matter from which galaxies formed. The detection of metal systems within the IGM shows that it was enriched by evolved stars early in its history, demonstrating an intimate connection between galaxy formation and the IGM. A comprehensive review of the current understanding of the structure and physical properties of the IGM and its relation to galaxies is presented, concluding with comments on prospects for furthering the study of the IGM using future ground-based facilities and space-based experiments.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors survey the development of high-order harmonic generation of femtosecond laser pulses by means of laser-produced plasmas and discuss the prospects for applying HHG as a short-wavelength coherent optical tool.
Abstract: The investigation of high-order harmonic generation (HHG) of femtosecond laser pulses by means of laser-produced plasmas is surveyed. This kind of harmonic generation is an alternative to the HHG in gases and shows significantly higher conversion efficiency. Furthermore, with plasma targets there is no limitation on applicable laser intensity and thus the generated harmonics can be much more intense. In principle, harmonic light may also be generated at relativistic laser intensity, in which case their harmonic intensities may even exceed that of the focused laser pulse by many orders of magnitude. This phenomenon presents new opportunities for applications such as nonlinear optics in the extreme ultraviolet region, photoelectron spectroscopy, and opacity measurements of high-density matter with high temporal and spatial resolution. On the other hand, HHG is strongly influenced by the laser-plasma interaction itself. In particular, recent results show a strong correlation with high-energy electrons generated during the interaction process. The harmonics are a promising tool for obtaining information not only on plasma parameters such as the local electron density, but also on the presence of large electric and magnetic fields, plasma waves, and the (electron) transport inside the target. This paper reviews the theoretical and experimental progress on HHGmore » via laser-plasma interactions and discusses the prospects for applying HHG as a short-wavelength, coherent optical tool.« less
TL;DR: In this paper, the effect of impurities on local charge and spin degrees of freedom in 1D antiferromagnetically correlated systems was investigated. But the results were limited to the Tc cuprate normal state, which is not soluble in 2 or 3 dimensions and so few exact results are known.
Abstract: In materials with strong local Coulomb interactions, simple defects such as atomic substitutions strongly affect both macroscopic and local properties of the system. A nonmagnetic impurity, for instance, is seen to induce magnetism nearby. Even without disorder, models of such correlated systems are generally not soluble in 2 or 3 dimensions, and so few exact results are known for the properties of such impurities. Nevertheless, some simple physical ideas have emerged from experiments and approximate theories. Here, we first review what we can learn about this problem from 1D antiferromagnetically correlated systems. We then discuss experiments on the high Tc cuprate normal state which probe the effect of impurities on local charge and spin degrees of freedom, and compare with theories of single impurities in correlated hosts, as well as phenomenological effective Kondo descriptions. Subsequently, we review theories of impurities in d-wave superconductors including residual quasiparticle interactions, and compare with experiments in the superconducting state. We argue that existing data exhibit a remarkable similarity to impurity-induced magnetism in the 1D case, implying the importance of electronic correlations for the understanding of these phenomena, and suggesting that impurities may provide excellent probes of the still poorly understood ground state of the cuprates.
TL;DR: In this article, a hierarchy in the extent to which particles move off of flux surfaces is established, which extends from no motion off flux surfaces for any particle to no average motion off surface for particular types of particles.
Abstract: Guiding-center theory provides the reduced dynamical equations for the motion of charged particles in slowly varying electromagnetic fields, when the fields have weak variations over a gyration radius or gyroradius in space and a gyration period or gyroperiod in time. Canonical and noncanonical Hamiltonian formulations of guiding-center motion offer improvements over non-Hamiltonian formulations: Hamiltonian formulations possess Noether’s theorem hence invariants follow from symmetries, and they preserve the Poincare invariantsso that spurious attractors are prevented from appearing in simulations of guiding-center dynamics. Hamiltonian guiding-center theory is guaranteed to have an energy conservation law for time-independent fields—something that is not true of non-Hamiltonian guiding-center theories. The use of the phase-space Lagrangian approach facilitates this development, as there is no need to transform a priori to canonical coordinates, such as flux coordinates, which have less physical meaning. The theory of Hamiltonian dynamics is reviewed, and is used to derive the noncanonical Hamiltonian theory of guiding-center motion. This theory is further explored within the context of magnetic flux coordinates, including the generic form along with those applicable to systems in which the magnetic fields lie on nested tori. It is shown how to return to canonical coordinates to arbitrary accuracy by the Hazeltine-Meiss method and by a perturbation theory applied to the phase-space Lagrangian. This noncanonical Hamiltonian theory is used to derive the higher-order corrections to the magnetic moment adiabatic invariant and to compute the longitudinal adiabatic invariant. Noncanonical guiding-center theory is also developed for relativistic dynamics, where covariant and noncovariant results are presented. The latter is important for computations in which it is convenient to use the ordinary time as the independent variable rather than the proper time. The final section uses noncanonical guiding-center theory to discuss the dynamics of particles in systems in which the magnetic-field lines lie on nested toroidal flux surfaces. A hierarchy in the extent to which particles move off of flux surfaces is established. This hierarchy extends from no motion off flux surfaces for any particle to no average motion off flux surfaces for particular types of particles. Future work in magnetically confined plasmas may make use of this hierarchy in designing systems that minimize transport losses.
TL;DR: A review of observations and models of the diffuse ionized gas that permeates the disk and halo of our Galaxy and others was presented during an afternoon scientific session of the 65th birthday celebration for Professor Carl Heiles held at Arecibo Observatory in August 2004 as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: This article reviews observations and models of the diffuse ionized gas that permeates the disk and halo of our Galaxy and others It was inspired by a series of invited talks presented during an afternoon scientific session of the 65th birthday celebration for Professor Carl Heiles held at Arecibo Observatory in August 2004 This review is in recognition of Carl's long-standing interest in and advocacy for studies of the ionized as well as the neutral components of the interstellar medium