Showing papers in "Science and Public Policy in 2009"

In search of relevance: The changing contract between science and society

Abstract: This paper reflects on the relevance of academic science. Relevance plays a central role in what we define as the ‘contract’ between (academic) science and society. The manifestations of relevance in the daily practice of academic research can be studied using the credibility cycle. Together, the science—society contract and the credibility cycle enable a systematic analysis of relevance in scientific disciplines. This is illustrated with a case study of academic chemistry in The Netherlands. We conclude that science's search for relevance is not new, but that its meaning changes together with changing ideas about the potential benefits of scientific research. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.

Public Procurement as an Innovation Policy Tool: the Role of Institutions.

Abstract: Policy-makers in the EU have increasingly emphasised the role of public procurement as a policy instrument that can be used to stimulate innovation. This development reflects and responds to a growing concern among EU member states about how to maintain competitive advantage in an economic environment increasingly subject to global competition. To contribute to these emerging policies, this paper develops an innovation theory-based approach regarding public procurement of innovations, by elaborating an institutional focus. In contrast to current institutional approaches in innovation studies, the approach applied here brings in the often neglected endogenous perspective. The empirical studies cited in this paper suggest that the needs of endogenous, or informal, institutions also need to be taken into account in order to understand better the institutional set-up enabling public procurement of innovations. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.

University—industry interactions in an immature system of innovation: Evidence from Minas Gerais, Brazil

Abstract: This paper evaluates interactions between firms and universities in Minas Gerais, one of the Brazilian states. The heterogeneity in Minas Gerais replicates the heterogeneity that exists in Brazil as a whole. This paper adapts the pioneering Yale and Carnegie Mellon surveys (USA) to an immature national system of innovation. We found that, in immature systems of innovation, beyond their traditional functions, universities perform a dual role in their interactions with firms: they substitute for and complement the research and development done by the firms themselves. In addition, contrary to conventional wisdom, even in the so-called low-tech and medium-tech sectors, universities matter. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.

The effectiveness of boundary objects: the case of ecological indicators

Abstract: Nature conservation policy relies on ecological indicators to assess ecosystem quality and to evaluate the effectiveness of policy and management. Ecological indicators are science-based instruments that classify nature into different (ecosystem) types, each of which is characterised by specific parameters and references. This paper draws on classification and boundary object theory to analyse two case studies about the role of ecological indicators in nature conservation. The cases show that interpretative flexibility is an important factor explaining the effectiveness of ecological indicators as boundary objects. However, rather than a characteristic of the indicator itself, this is a social achievement, which depends on a common culture of shared values and preferences. The paper concludes by discussing the implications of these findings for the concept of boundary objects

Assessing the impact of research on policy: a literature review

Abstract: Understanding the impact of research on policy is a vital, and often overlooked, element of policy-making. A systematic literature review was conducted to examine methods for evaluating the impact of research on policy outcomes. The review focused in particular on strategic policy levels (rather than implementation) and waste, environment and pollution policy. The review draws on an international literature, although it is limited to English language publications. The findings identify the different methods used, the advantages and disadvantages of different approaches and the methods that are most effective (particularly in terms of cost). The field of research impact evaluation is currently experiencing rapid development, and there is scope to develop and apply new conceptual frameworks and innovative methods for evaluation, and to conduct and publish more research impact evaluations.

The evolution of Norway's national innovation system

Abstract: This paper analyses the co-evolution of science, technology and innovation policy and industrial structure in a small, open, resource-based economy (Norway). The contributions of the paper are threefold. First, it develops an evolutionary and historically oriented approach to the study of the development of these policies that may have wide applicability. Second, it focuses on a particular type of innovation, innovation in resource-based activities, that differs in many respects from the more commonly studied case of innovation in ‘high-tech’ industries. Third, the paper advances our understanding of the roles played by institutions and politics in innovation. Previous work on national systems of innovation has devoted little attention to these matters, possibly because much of this work examines ‘snapshots’ of various innovation systems at a specific point in time and lacks historical depth.

New activities of universities in transfer and extension: multiple requirements and manifold solutions

Abstract: The third mission encompasses all activities of universities beyond their first and second missions, education and research. An analysis of various countries with different economic, political and geographic features reveals an increased demand for such activities in particular with regard to technology transfer, but also as to the support of the civil society in more general terms. Therefore the universities have to find a new balance between education, research and transfer/extension. However, suitable solutions are often complicated by the orientation of the universities and the policy actors on non-scrutinized paradigms originating in other contexts. The strategies in different countries are embedded in their specific context, making it impossible to determine a best practice. Nonetheless, many interesting approaches can be observed, and mutual learning can be fruitful. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.

Academic patenting and the professor's privilege: evidence on Denmark from the KEINS database

Abstract: Since 1955, the professor’s privilege had allowed Danish professors to retain intellectual property rights (IPRs) over the results of their research. This changed in 2000, when Denmark, the first of several countries to do so, abolished the professor’s privilege and granted IPRs over research results to universities. In this paper we show that in the first years following the abolition, a considerable amount of patenting activity has moved out of professors’ hands into those of their universities. We also show that the bulk of academic patenting consists of inventions owned by business companies, and this holds true both before and after the abolition of the privilege. In this respect, the Danish case confirms the European pattern as described in the recent literature and provides useful suggestions on the likely effects of re-distribution of IPRs between universities and their faculties. HE EXTENT OF ACADEMIC PATENTING in Denmark is analyzed in this paper, with special reference to the effects of legislative changes introduced in 1999. Such changes were part of a broader Act on Innovation at Public Research Institutions (Lov om opfindelser ved offentlige forskningsinstitutioner) and resulted in the

Influence of research funding and science policy on university research performance: A comparison of five countries

Abstract: The ability of universities to efficiently produce high-standard knowledge has become an important goal in science policies of many developed countries. Thus, many countries nowadays steer universities based on performance monitoring and competition. This article analyzes the connection between the competitiveness of the university funding environment and research performance in five OECD countries in 1987–2006. Besides funding, other science policy factors are analyzed using the framework of four state steering models. Results indicate that the university funding environment has become more competitive in all the compared countries, but the extent and pace of this development varies. Countries also differ in relation to steering models but all have employed policy elements typical of at least two models. In terms of competitive funding environment and research performance, there is no straightforward relationship between the two. With reference to the state steering models, the most traditional model which emphasizes university independence from the state seems to be the most beneficial to research performance. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.

Public research funding systems in central and eastern europe: Between excellence and relevance: Introduction to special section

Abstract: Transformation of public research funding systems in central and eastern Europe (CEE) represent a natural experiment whereby different funding systems have developed from relatively common heritage of the socialist system. In this introduction that builds on the three papers of this thematic issue we argue that in medium and long-term the key challenge of CEE countries' research funding systems is to achieve balance between scientific excellence (static allocative efficiency) and socio-economic relevance (dynamic efficiency). The achievement of this trade-off is an institutional issue par excellence; it does not represent optimum but contextual fit, and is determined through interaction of macro funding rules and market structure of the research system. In order to evaluate this fit we should approach research funding as a multifaceted process composed of functional, path-dependent and political as well as learning dimensions. © Beech Tree Publishing 2009.

University start-ups for breaking lock-ins of the Brazilian economy

Abstract: Brazilian universities were created initially with a teaching mission, later incorporating research activities along with the implementation of graduate programs. Recently, new public policies supporting the innovation process have been implemented to encourage universities to assume a more active role and expand their relationship with the productive sector commercializing the results of their research activities. The purpose of this paper is to describe and better understand the features of the Brazilian university system and the specific ways in which these three missions emerged as a function of the different phases of development that Brazil has experienced. Special emphasis is given to the incorporation of the third mission, under their traditional and advanced forms.

New challenges for universities beyond education and research

Abstract: The two time-honoured tasks of universities are teaching and research which have long provided society with specific skills and new knowledge and ideas. Expectations have increased exponentially and demands are originating from a much wider range of stakeholders. Universities are now given progressively more important roles in economic expansion, social development, better forms of political organization and governance, plus providing education for more students, and developing and transferring technology to industry. The capacity of universities to respond is insufficient, in both the developed and developing worlds. New models to guide the evolution of universities include the triple helix, the creation of entrepreneurial or specialized universities, large-scale excellence-driven environments or the concept of developmental universities. Most of these ultimately suggest that the universities move towards technology-oriented third missions, thus a closer interaction with enterprises. This special issue of Science and Public Policy explores such issues in 12 countries. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.

Learning by firms: the black box of South Africa's innovation system

Abstract: South Africa designed its post-Apartheid science and technology policies in the mould of the national innovation system approach. Yet policymakers knew little about the determinants of technological upgrading in latecomer firms either in the developing world more generally or in South Africa specifically. These two blind spots made for a veritable black box hiding the engines of innovation. Policy was designed around this black box and was thus largely and by necessity borrowed rather than learned. This paper describes why this is a problem and what can be done about it. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.

Science and technology parks: habitats of innovation: introduction to special section

Abstract: This introductory paper explores a number of topics on creativity and innovation discussed at the IASP World Conference held in Barcelona in 2007. The papers selected for this special issue are introduced, and theoretical and methodological approaches related to creativity and innovation are discussed. The fundamentals, strategies, statistics, programs and networking variables concerning worldwide science and technology (S&T) parks are considered. The paper stresses the impact of the array of knowledge sources. It also analyses the role of the powerful, tangible and intangible assets of the existing S&T parks as well as the management of the many agents active in organised network structures. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.

Linking between Danish universities and society

Abstract: In Denmark, third mission activities were for the first time explicitly formulated as mandatory in the University Act of May 2003, and the purpose of this paper is to analyze current third mission experiences from two younger Danish universities (University of Southern Denmark and Aalborg University). The two case studies show that third mission activities are perceived and implemented in different ways, depending on factors both internal and external to the university. Third mission activities are becoming more strategic for the universities and their collaboration partners, and the paper concludes that there is a need for universities, policy-makers and society in general to find a balance between commercialization and open access to university-generated knowledge, a balance between third mission activities aiming at industry demand and broader societal considerations, and a balance between the allocation of financial and other resources among the three missions. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.

Indicator development as 'boundary spanning' between scientists and policy-makers

Abstract: In sustainability impact assessments the development of widely accepted indicators that structure the subject area and provide the framework for assessing sustainability impacts is clearly important. We argue that the development of sustainability indicators in science-based initiatives works across the science/policy interface where social and natural scientists as well as stakeholders and policy-makers both translate concepts and ideas to each other and thus make value judgments about the selection of indicators and related sub-classes. This explains why pure scientific indicator initiatives based on simple ‘knowledge transfer’ models are unlikely to succeed. Instead, sustainability indicator development requires a ‘knowledge transaction model’ which spans the boundary between the scientific and the political domains.

What do civil society organisations expect from participation in science? Lessons from Germany and Spain on the issue of GMOs

Abstract: Recent debates in science and technology studies, as well as more practical approaches to science policy both at national and European level, have stressed the relevance of citizen participation in the field of science. This paper investigates what some of the key actors in this debate, civil society organisations, expect from participation. The paper presents two case studies of civil society participation in the field of novel biotechnologies in Germany and in Spain. Despite the differences between the experiences of participation in these two countries, our study shows that current institutional approaches, which are inspired by the ‘democratisation of expertise’ perspective and set up essentially at the ‘downstream’ level, seem less promising than ‘upstream’ models of participation, which, in contrast, appear more meaningful from a ‘co-production of science’ framing.

The trajectory of scientific citizenship in Denmark: Changing balances between public competence and public participation

Abstract: The understanding of relations between science and the public is divided between two competing paradigms: one that focuses on citizen competence and one-way dissemination of knowledge, and another that emphasizes public participation and dialogue. This article proposes an integrative framework that regards competence and participation as important dimensions of ‘scientific citizenship’, and focuses on the changing balance between these dimensions. Recounting developments in Denmark, it is argued that the trajectory of scientific citizenship in Denmark runs counter to the broader European trend. In the 2000s, Danish policies and social practices concerned with the interplay between science and the public have been highly focused on one-way dissemination, and the traditional ‘Danish model’ of institutionalized, deliberative public participation in science and technology decision-making, which developed in the course of the 1980s and received international renown, has lost much of its influence. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.

The National Citizens Technology Forum: Lessons for the Future

Abstract: The recently completed National Citizens' Technology Forum (NCTF) was the first nationwide consensus conference in the US. This paper argues that the exercise serves as a proof-of-concept for this mode of public participation in the governance of emerging technologies. The NCTF demonstrated the feasibility of conducting such exercises across three time zones, and illustrated the compatibility of the consensus conference process with American political norms in practice. It provides additional evidence that, given a structured, constructive environment for deliberation, and access to information and expertise, lay citizens can and do produce policy-relevant recommendations in highly technical arenas. Finally, the experience indicates opportunities for future improvements in integrating input from the public, stakeholders, and experts into the policy-making process. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.

Public support to private innovation in multi-level governance systems: An empirical investigation

Abstract: This paper explores the distinct distributive nature of innovation programs by government levels. The research setting is a European region actively involved in regional, national, and supra-national (EU)level programs. The results suggest that sub-national programs lead to changes in firms’ attitudes towards product and process innovation. The impacts of national and supra-national programs are different: nationally supported firms are more likely to accelerate their path towards product (but not to process) innovations; supra-national supported businesses gain in greater sales due to incremental innovative products. From a policy perspective, the results suggest that lower levels of government could alleviate entry barriers into technological activities while upper-level programs improve the economic performance of pre-existing innovators.

Creativity: people, environment and culture, the key elements in its understanding and interpretation

Abstract: This paper discusses three aspects of entrepreneurship: people (innovators, entrepreneurs and amateurs) at the core of creative production who ‘function’ as agents of transformation; culture which helps to motivate people and create a value system (embedded contexts) and; the environment where innovations and entrepreneurial settings function as productive factors to stimulate more creativity. Looking from these three angles we present a triple helix for innovation related to creativity or the creative industry. Relying on a substantive report issued in 2008 by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, we explore aspects linked with the creative industries or the economies that form part of it. Despite differing views on the definition of the term ‘creativity’, the paper tries to analyse creative people as entrepreneurs, proposing a triadic approach to understand and interpret it, thus presenting our second, more consolidated, triple helix for creative entrepreneurship. We also draw on practical knowledge to discuss the core elements of our triple helix. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.

Comparing the organization of public research funding in central and eastern European countries

Abstract: In this article, we present a comparative analysis of the organization of public funding of research in three central and eastern European countries. We first compare the organization of funding agencies, the portfolio of funding instruments and, finally, the repartition of funding by beneficiaries. Further, we identify the main structural characteristics of the funding systems, by looking at features like sectoral divisions, level of delegation and the role of different institutional levels in the management of funding. Against a widespread conception of research policies in central and eastern European countries converging towards a western-style model, our study displays profound differences between the considered countries, related to history but also to contextual factors in the reform phase. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.

Linkages to the Civil Society as ‘Leisure Time Activities’? Experiences at a German University

Abstract: The paper focuses on the role academic organizations and their members play within their socio-economic and socio-political contexts. It presents findings of the case study of a German university. Based on qualitative interviews, written documents and bibliometric analyses, we can see that, first, most of the university's links to the economy, political actors, and broader civil society emerge in a bottom-up and decentralized way, and they thrive on individual motivation and commitment. Therefore, there are clear limits to the formal institutionalization of such activities at the organizational level. Second, while ties to industry pay off at least indirectly through research funding, links to regional policy-making and broader civil society remain largely unrewarded in academia. For the future, we expect a growing tension between the organizational goal to embrace additional goals and the individual goals, especially of younger researchers who increasingly tend to focus on those activities that are rewarded in academia.

Vitalizing the Swedish university system: implementation of the ‘third mission’

Abstract: Universities throughout the world are increasingly experiencing the dual expectations of being anchored regionally by performing more or less specific services to the local or regional community, and operating on a global scale. How those services are actually performed is the object of this study. A division of labor between universities of different backgrounds is found. The study presents the case of two Swedish universities, where each shows proof of distinct trajectories, depending on the history and size of the universities respectively, as well as the characteristics of the regional economies in which they are embedded. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.

The coproduction of immigrant integration policy and research in the Netherlands: the case of the Scientific Council for Government Policy

Abstract: The Dutch Scientific Council for Government Policy (WRR) is centrally positioned within the Dutch research-policy nexus. In particular, it has developed a tradition of involvement in the field of immigrant integration. This paper analyses the role of the WRR as a 'boundary organisation' in the development of both immigrant integration research and policy in the Netherlands. It shows that the WRR not only plays a role in the diffusion of scientific knowledge to policy, but also in negotiating the boundaries and the division of labour between research and policy. It operates on the research-policy nexus, but also contributes to the shaping of this nexus. Studying the 'boundary work' of the WRR therefore allows us to develop a better understanding of how and why the relationship between immigrant integration research and policy in the Netherlands has evolved from a symbiotic relationship in the 1970s and 1980s to a more antithetical relationship in recent decades.

Towards a new role of universities in Russia: prospects and limitations

Abstract: The paper refers to a contemporary discussion of S&T and innovation activities of Russian universities and respective national policies against the background of institutional transformation of the national innovation system. It emphasizes the Russian NIS structure and subsequent positioning of universities and the research institutions of the Academy of Sciences. The analysis makes it evident that the innovation activity of Russian universities is strongly challenged by various interdependent hampering factors. These factors arise directly from traditional barriers between science and education, which in turn relate to the imperfection of Russia's NIS originating from deep structural breaches far beyond S&T and education activities. National policies nowadays are aimed at increasing the innovation activity of universities, and the article concludes with an overview of the current debate on the most urgent issues. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.

Competition for public project funding in a small research system: the case of Estonia

Abstract: The extensive literature that deals with competition for research funding has focused on the mechanisms and outcomes of funding, but has not systematically studied the allocation of funding among research performers across different financing instruments. The analysis of a small research system on the basis of funding volumes disaggregated according to beneficiaries and funding instruments showed a very high and growing degree of market concentration strengthening existing dominant research institutions. The focus of research policy on competitive funding mechanisms has been successful for the purposes of research quality, but has also resulted in disadvantages such as weak options for steering the research and the misalignment of the research system with society's needs. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.

Moving beyond teaching and research: economic and social tasks of universities in Latvia

Abstract: As a small European country that joined the European Union in 2004 after being part of the USSR for half a century, Latvia and its system of higher education and research is continually adapting to changing conditions, both nationally and internationally. While it experienced a certain depression in the 1990s, conditioned by the reorientation from the principles and scale of the soviet system to the needs and resources of a small democratic country, more recently an upsurge exhibiting a more dynamic development can be observed. During the last decade, the universities in Latvia have undergone substantial transformations in respect of both their internal activities and the extending operations reaching out into society. This paper attempts to identify these emerging areas of activity, characterizing the relevant situation and the ways of coping with the existing challenges related to the new tasks faced by universities in the national context

When and how to use bibliometrics as a screening tool for research performance

Abstract: Scientific performance is often evaluated by bibliometric indicators such as publication counts or citations. But this may neglect other relevant outputs from research units. An optimal evaluation would measure each dimension separately, but this would be costly. Luckily, cluster analyses show that units which specialise in other types of research activities (such as knowledge transfer or education of doctoral students), do not completely ignore publication-related activities. Publication-related outputs can also be disaggregated into quality (measured by citations) and quantity (measured by counts) dimensions. Thus, the performance of research groups can be screened using the Integral Citation (a new bibliometric indicator) which combines the quality and quantity dimensions. Units at the extremes need to be studied in more detail, to avoid measurement biases. (Less)

Homo creativus: creativity and serendipity management in third generation science and technology parks

Abstract: There is an urgent need to implement new approaches to homo creativus in the context of science and technology parks. The recent evolution towards the third generation of science and technology parks is essentially human-centric, and in this sense, it embodies a homo creativus approach. Such approach focuses on supporting open innovation and stimulating new management paradigms such as serendipity management and network incubation. After discussing and presenting a set of analytical frameworks for studying and implementing these approaches, this paper offers a practical case study of how these processes have taken place in the Global Oasis Network at the Joensuu Science Park, Finland since 2006. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.