Showing papers in "Self and Identity in 2008"
TL;DR: This article investigated how people replenish the self's limited regulatory resource after it is depleted by self-control exertion, and they found that depletion occurs given the occurrence of favorable conditions.
Abstract: Two experiments investigated how people replenish the self's limited regulatory resource after it is depleted by self-control exertion. Specifically, in Experiment 1, when depleted participants received a 10-minute period between regulatory tasks, their subsequent performance equaled non-depleted participants. In Experiment 2, inducing participants to relax between self-regulation tasks reduced the typical depletion effects. Thus, these findings suggest that replenishment of the self's depleted resources occurs given the occurrence of favorable conditions.
223 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, an approach for measuring identity multiplicity and intersectionality, Hierarchical Classes Analysis (HICLAS) of an Assessment of Multiple Identities, was proposed.
Abstract: We propose an innovative approach for measuring identity multiplicity and intersectionality—Hierarchical Classes Analysis (HICLAS) of an Assessment of Multiple Identities. This method allows researchers to assess characteristics of individual identities and model implicit interrelationships between multiple identities held by an individual. We found support for the validity of this approach through analysis of sexual, racial, and gender identities among 40 lesbian, gay, or bisexually identified (LGB) participants. As hypothesized, poorer mental health indicators were significantly associated with greater negative valence of sexual identity and greater negative self-complexity in HICLAS. HICLAS also allowed us to discern subgroup differences indicative of intersectionality (e.g., in this LGB sample, more African American participants than White participants showed interconnected sexual and racial identities).
115 citations
TL;DR: This article found that holding a biological gender theory would orient women to view possessing gender stereotypical characteristics as inevitable, and thus would be linked to stronger gender self-stereotyping (even for negative feminine traits) than would a social gender theory.
Abstract: Although the nature versus nurture debate about gender differences has persisted for decades, few studies have examined the implications of individuals' nature versus nurture beliefs. In the present research, we examined how women's beliefs that gender is biologically determined or socially constructed affected their self-stereotyping tendency. Specifically, we hypothesized that holding a biological gender theory would orient women to view possessing gender stereotypical characteristics as inevitable, and thus would be linked to stronger gender self-stereotyping (even for negative feminine traits) than would a social gender theory. In two studies, using both correlational and experimental designs, we found as predicted that the biological gender theory was linked to stronger gender self-stereotyping tendency (as reflected by greater endorsements of negative feminine traits and slower reaction time in denying stereotypic feminine traits). Moreover, this relationship holds even when the participants' sexist...
100 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the effects of receiving negative interpersonal feedback on state self-esteem, affect, and goal pursuit as a function of trait selfesteem and contingencies of self-worth were examined.
Abstract: The present research examined effects of receiving negative interpersonal feedback on state self-esteem, affect, and goal pursuit as a function of trait self-esteem and contingencies of self-worth Two same-sex participants interacted with each other and then received negative feedback, ostensibly from the other participant, or no feedback, regarding their likeability Participants then reported their state self-esteem, affect, and self-presentation goals—how they wanted to be perceived by others at the moment Among participants who received negative feedback, those who more strongly based their self-worth on others' approval experienced lower state self-esteem, positive affect, and greater negative affect than those whose self-worth was less contingent on others' approval Participants with low self-esteem showed greater desire to appear physically attractive to others the more they based self-worth on others' approval and received negative feedback In contrast, participants with high self-esteem showe
89 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the role of both structural and flexible self variables in the process of adapting to change, and the consequences of this adaptation process was investigated, including changes in psychological well-being and in flexible aspects of the self (i.e., new identity, contextual self-determined motivation).
Abstract: On the basis of theoretical work on self-determination, coping, and the self, this study aimed at understanding the role of both structural and flexible self variables in the process of adapting to change, and the consequences of this adaptation process. It was hypothesized that, in a changing situation, global self-determination, as a structural aspect of the self, would predict the coping strategies used to deal with this life change. Coping, in turn, was hypothesized to represent an adaptation process mediating the associations between global self-determination and various consequences. The consequences investigated included changes in psychological well-being and in flexible aspects of the self (i.e., new identity, contextual self-determined motivation). Using a three-wave design, this study tested these hypotheses among students experiencing the transition to university. Results obtained through structural equation modeling involving true change procedures provided support for most of the anticipated...
74 citations
TL;DR: Benet-Martinez et al. as discussed by the authors examined the link between bicultural identity integration (BII; degree of compatibility vs. opposition perceived between ethnic and mainstream cultural orientations) and the psychological overlap/distance between the personality traits ascribed to the self, a typical Latino, and a typical Anglo American.
Abstract: In two samples of Latino biculturals, we examined the link between bicultural identity integration (BII; degree of compatibility vs. opposition perceived between ethnic and mainstream cultural orientations; Benet-Martinez & Haritatos, 2005) and the psychological overlap/distance between the personality traits ascribed to the self, a typical Latino, and a typical Anglo American. As predicted, BII's component of blendedness (vs. distance) was consistently and positively associated with higher overlap between personality ratings of the self and a typical Latino, the self and a typical Anglo American, and a typical Latino and a typical Anglo American. Also as predicted, results with BII's component of harmony (vs. conflict) were not robust. Overall, our results suggest that biculturals with integrated cultural identities have social perceptions of themselves and their cultural in-groups that are closely aligned together, supporting social identity theory.
71 citations
TL;DR: This article found that the difference in self-esteem between East Asians and North Americans was driven primarily by Chinese participants' greater tendency to agree with negatively worded selfesteem items and that because of the motivation to maintain consistent responses, North Americans' response pattern varied depending on whether the first item in the selfesteem measur...
Abstract: Past studies showed that compared to North Americans, East Asians have lower self-esteem and their self-esteem scores do not predict self-esteem-related motivations and self-perceptions. These findings have been interpreted in terms of a lack of the need for positive self-regard in East Asian contexts. We posit that the East – West difference in self-esteem may arise from the popularity of the dialectical self (the idea that one can have both a positive and negative self) in East Asia and of the internally consistent self (the notion that having a positive self implies not having a negative one, and vice versa) in North America. Consistent with this idea, we found that the Chinese American difference in self-esteem level was driven primarily by Chinese participants' greater tendency to agree with negatively worded self-esteem items. Furthermore, because of the motivation to maintain consistent responses, North Americans' response pattern varied depending on whether the first item in the self-esteem measur...
51 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated a potential mechanism by which possible self-agents affect behavior by considering them in the context of control-process models of self-regulation and found that participants with adequate self-regulatory capacity exhibited increased negative affect when a feared self in the health domain was made salient.
Abstract: We investigated a potential mechanism by which possible selves affect behavior by considering them in the context of control-process models of self-regulation. After a hoped-for or feared self in the health domain was made salient, participants were provided with opportunities to behave in ways that would address any unwanted discrepancy between the salient possible self and the current self. In order to ensure that behavior was in the service of self-regulation, we compromised the self-regulatory capacity of some participants and, after the opportunity to behaviorally regulate, assessed negative affect. We expected evidence of behavioral self-regulation only for participants with adequate self-regulatory capacity and heightened negative affect in participants who did not behaviorally self-regulate. The results generally supported our hypotheses when a feared self in the health domain was made salient. We attribute the failure to find effects for a salient hoped-for self to the general lack of discrepancy...
47 citations
TL;DR: Forgiveness was associated with greater perceived overlap between self and partner in a graphical measure of inclusion of the other in the self scale (IOS), and greater use of first-person plural pronouns (i.e., we, us, our, and ours) in open-ended descriptions of their relationships.
Abstract: The present research was designed to examine the link between forgiveness and cognitive interdependence, the mental state characterized by pluralistic representations of the self-in-relationship (Agnew, Van Lange, Rusbult, & Langston, 1998). Consistent with hypotheses, results revealed that forgiveness was associated with greater perceived overlap between self and partner in a graphical measure of Inclusion of the Other in the Self scale (IOS; Aron, Aron, Tudor, & Nelson, 1991, Study 1), and greater use of first-person plural pronouns (i.e., we, us, our, and ours) in open-ended descriptions of their relationships (Study 2). Forgiveness accounted for cognitive interdependence, while controlling for several variables, including relational commitment and mood. Implications of the present results for relationship functioning and well-being are discussed.
47 citations
TL;DR: The body weight contingency of self-worth (body weight CSW) as discussed by the authors is the tendency for people to base their self-esteem on body weight, and it is a measure of the extent to which a person's self-confidence is influenced by body weight.
Abstract: The body weight contingency of self-worth (body weight CSW) is the tendency for people to base their self-esteem on body weight. In two studies, the body weight contingency was evaluated against a general appearance contingency of self-worth (appearance CSW) to investigate whether or not individuals may base self-esteem on body weight. Compared to the appearance CSW, the body weight CSW predicted unique variance in self-esteem, instability of self-esteem, body shape anxiety, and several aspects of psychological dysfunction. Additionally, the body weight CSW moderated relationships between body weight and relevant outcome variables, whereas the appearance CSW did not. Gender and ethnic differences in the tendency to base self-worth on body weight were also explored.
41 citations
TL;DR: For instance, this article investigated the possibility that the unconscious activation of the Oedipal situation would lead people, especially men and individuals who possess narcissistic personality features, to become more prohibitive toward sexual infidelity in romantic relationships.
Abstract: We used mindset priming techniques to conduct an experimental study (N = 316) designed to assess ideas derived from psychoanalytic theory. Specifically, we investigated the possibility that the unconscious activation of the Oedipal situation would lead people—especially men and individuals who possess narcissistic personality features—to become more prohibitive toward sexual infidelity in romantic relationships. Results supported this hypothesis, which was tested using a new scale of attitudes toward sexual infidelity. Although men and narcissists tend to be more permissive towards sexual infidelity in general, when they are led to identify and empathize with the victim of betrayal, they become as disapproving of extra-dyadic sexual involvement as are women and low narcissists. Correlational evidence indicates that narcissism is positively associated with the likelihood of having affairs, the number of partners cheated on, and (for women but not men) the likelihood of being cheated on. In addition, the (s...
TL;DR: This article examined the associations between self-discrepancies, assessed both idiographically and nomothetically, and measures of depression, anxiety, and self-esteem, and found that actual self-ideal and actual-ought self-disparities were significant predictors of the three measures of psychological well-being, even while controlling for individual variability in ratings of the actual self.
Abstract: This study examined the associations between self-discrepancies, assessed both idiographically and nomothetically, and measures of depression, anxiety, and self-esteem. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that actual – ideal and actual – ought self-discrepancies were significant predictors of the three measures of psychological well-being, even while controlling for individual variability in ratings of the actual self. Further analysis indicated these effects were primarily attributable to the nomothetic, rather than the idiographic, measures of self-discrepancies. Lastly, the results failed to support the central predictions of Higgins' (1987) self-discrepancy theory. Specifically, for both the idiographic and nomothetic measures the actual – ideal discrepancies were not found to be uniquely predictive of depression and the actual – ought discrepancies were not found to be uniquely predictive of anxiety. The results were discussed with regard to the general self-discrepancy literature as well as se...
TL;DR: This article found that heterosexual men who publicly violated a gender role norm, and thereby risked misclassification as gay, reported heightened discomfort and diminished implicit self-evaluation, unless they directly or indirectly communicated their heterosexual status to their ostensible audience.
Abstract: When people perform role-violating behaviors that are diagnostic of membership in a stigmatized group, they risk identity misclassification—i.e., being mistaken for a member of that group. Because false stigmatization raises the possibility of interpersonal punishment, role violators who wish to avoid it must communicate their non-stigmatized status to others. Conversely, self-protective strategies such as self-affirmations (Steele, 1988) that do not communicate non-stigmatized status should fail to reduce role violators' discomfort. Consistent with this assumption, heterosexual men who publicly violated a gender role norm—and thereby risked misclassification as gay—reported heightened discomfort and diminished implicit self-evaluation, unless they directly or indirectly communicated their heterosexual status to their ostensible audience. Moreover, a standard self-affirmation task failed to protect heterosexual role violators from discomfort. Discussion highlights the implications of these findings for re...
TL;DR: This paper investigated changes in the tripartite self-concept in a sample of pre-, early-, mid-, and late adolescents, and found that the individual self became more socially oriented through adolescence, and the relational self shifted focus from the family context in pre-adolescence to the peer context in early adolescence.
Abstract: This study investigated changes in the tripartite self-concept in a sample of pre-, early-, mid-, and late-adolescents. Participants provided self-descriptions under conditions that primed either a personal or social context. As expected, adolescents showed fluctuating use of the individual, relational, and collective levels of self. The collective and individual self became more prominent, particularly in later adolescence, while the relational self became less prominent. The individual self became more socially oriented through adolescence, and the relational self shifted focus from the family context in pre-adolescence to the peer context in early adolescence. Implications for theory on self-concept change and on adolescent identity are presented, and highlight the need for further research on the development of social identity in adolescence.
TL;DR: In this article, the dimensionality of self-construal and the consistency of this dimensionality across age and gender was examined using confirmatory factor and measurement invariance analyses, and it was found that elders valued uniqueness more than young adults and both genders strive equally for achievement, albeit through different means.
Abstract: The dimensionality of self-construal, and the consistency of this dimensionality across age and gender, was examined using confirmatory factor and measurement invariance analyses. Across young and older adults, across men and women, and across White Americans and Hispanic Americans, a four-factor solution, including vertical and horizontal interdependence and vertical and horizontal independence, fitted the data better than a two-factor solution with vertical and horizontal dimensions posited as single factors. These results support the hypothesized individual-level multidimensionality of self-construal and suggest that it is structurally similar to the dimensionality of individualism – collectivism at the cultural level. Latent mean comparisons revealed that elders valued uniqueness, on average, more than young adults and that both genders strive equally for achievement, albeit through different means. Implications for cross-level (i.e., cultural vs. individual) and multidimensional understandings of the...
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined the effects of self-congruence and negative elaboration on life transitions and found that self-congruence promotes well-being, while negative elaborations may moderate the effects.
Abstract: Two studies examined the effects of self-congruence and negative elaboration on life transitions. Study 1 involved college students considering the transition from college to careers. Students with greater self-congruence reported decreased dejection and higher quality of life. Students with high negative elaboration reported greater dejection and lower quality of life. Students with high self-congruence and low negative elaboration had higher self-esteem than students with high self-congruence but high negative elaboration. Study 2, a prospective study of new mothers, showed that low self-congruence during pregnancy was associated with higher postpartum dejection, but only for mothers with high negative elaboration. Together, these studies indicate that self-congruence promotes, and negative elaboration impairs, well-being. Furthermore, negative elaboration may moderate the effects of self-congruence. For impending transitions (college to career) negative elaboration may decrease the benefit of high self...
TL;DR: For instance, the authors found that participants whose affection goals with a significant other were chronically dissatisfied (or satisfied) learned about a new person who resembled this significant other (or did not).
Abstract: The social-cognitive transference process evokes relevant affect and motivation. When a significant-other representation is activated, this indirectly activates motives and emotions experienced with that significant other (e.g., Andersen, Reznik, & Manzella, 1996). We predicted that this activated motivation in transference, if chronically dissatisfied in the significant-other relationship, would provoke diminished approach motivation, increased hostility and, paradoxically, heightened affection-seeking behavior as hostility increases. Participants whose affection goals with a significant other were chronically dissatisfied (or satisfied) learned about a new person who resembled this significant other (or did not). As predicted, participants in this resemblance condition whose affection goals were dissatisfied reported dampened approach motivation, increased hostility, and an association between this hostility and behavioral persistence on a task designed to solicit liking from a new person.
TL;DR: The authors investigated the feared body image self within Carver, Lawrence, and Scheier's interaction self-discrepancy framework and found that the relationship between approach body fat self-guides and affect was strong only when women were far from their feared fat self.
Abstract: We investigate the feared body image self within Carver, Lawrence, and Scheier's (1999) interaction self-discrepancy framework. Ought, ideal, and feared body image self-discrepancies were examined as predictors of agitation-related affect (anxiety) and dejection-related affect (happiness). The relationship between approach (ought and ideal) body fat discrepancies and affect was in line with Higgins (1987) but was moderated by distance from the feared self for women only. Specifically, the relationship between approach body fat self-guides and affect was strong only when women were far from their feared fat self. The results suggest that the feared body self is an important body image construct and that Carver et al.'s framework is suitable for investigating body image self-representations.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the effects of initial self-control attempts and also attention on performance, and found that performance decrements can be overcome by attentional strategies, when participants distracted themselves by performing a calculation task during the second self control measurement, they did not show a decline in performance.
Abstract: The present research tested predictions of the strength model of self-control and delay of gratification by examining the effects of initial self-control attempts and also attention on performance. Participants completed a series of two identical physical self-control tasks, namely holding up a weight, under varying conditions. The results showed that performance decrements can be overcome by attentional strategies. When participants distracted themselves by performing a calculation task during the second self-control measurement, they did not show a decline in performance. In contrast, participants who did not distract themselves and those who instead focused on their muscles while holding up the weight, performed significantly worse on the second measurement. Interestingly, the distraction task reduced regulatory performance when it was performed before the second measurement.
TL;DR: The authors explored hypercriticism as a strategy used by people attempting to appear smart and found that people who tried to look smart were more critical than either those wanting to be liked, or those in a no-goal control group.
Abstract: Two experiments explored hypercriticism as a strategy used by people attempting to appear smart. People wanting to appear smart were more critical than either those wanting to be liked, or those in a no-goal control group. Further, more people in the “appear smart” condition selected a disliked topic in order to facilitate hypercritical evaluations. We also found that trying to appear smart led to a drop in the intelligence ratings of an interaction partner. These two studies extend previous work (Amabile & Glazebrook, 1982) by ruling out potential alternative explanations for the hypercriticism effect, by identifying other targets relevant to the hypercritical strategy, and by demonstrating the proactive nature of hypercriticism.
TL;DR: This article found that older adults tend to recall a disproportionately large number of autobiographical events from late adolescence to early adulthood, and that personal memories of the bump period remain salient even in the dreams of older adults, because they relate to the development of goals of the self and identity.
Abstract: Older adults tend to recall a disproportionately large number of autobiographical events from late adolescence – early adulthood. The presence of such a reminiscence bump has recently been found in the contents of dreams as well. The fact that this referred life period is characterized by the development of life goals and identity could explain the prominence of associated autobiographical memories. In order to test this hypothesis, the present study examined the contents of older adults' dreams with temporal reference to that foundational period of life. These dreams were found to be characterized by contents related to personal goals and akin to the integrative type of reminiscence. These findings support the theory that personal memories of the bump period remain salient, even in the dreams of older adults, because they relate to the development of goals of the self and identity, and that older adults use these “personal data” to (re)construct a coherent and meaningful self.
TL;DR: This paper investigated individual differences in perceived esteem (perceptions of how positively one is viewed by others) and the relationship between perceived esteem, self-esteem, selfmonitoring and life satisfaction across cultures.
Abstract: A study was conducted to investigate individual differences in perceived esteem (perceptions of how positively one is viewed by others) and the relationship between perceived esteem, self-esteem, self-monitoring, and life satisfaction across cultures. A study with Japanese and American college students (and a pilot study with Caucasian and Asian American participants), indicated that a 10-item measure of perceived esteem, assessing such perceptions across a variety of target others, was internally consistent and had a unitary factor structure across cultural groups. Among Japanese participants, perceived esteem predicted unique variance in other-directed self-monitoring and life satisfaction beyond that of self-esteem, while self-esteem accounted for perceived esteem's effect on both variables for Americans. These findings suggest that perceived esteem, independent of self-worth, is particularly important to social functioning and life satisfaction for those in collectivistic cultures.
TL;DR: In this article, two competing hypotheses about how competence and acceptance play a role in self-esteem were tested in four studies (N =332) and the results supported the acceptance hypothesis: acceptance influenced selfesteem more than did competence.
Abstract: Recent theorizing suggests that both competence and acceptance contribute to global self-esteem. However, relatively little empirical work has focused on the relative contributions of competence and acceptance. We tested in four studies (N = 332) two competing hypotheses about how competence and acceptance play a role in self-esteem. According to the acceptance hypothesis, acceptance should influence self-esteem more than competence should. According to the competence/acceptance hypothesis, acceptance and competence should influence self-esteem roughly equally. The studies assessed state self-esteem in several ways: responses to feedback in an experimental setting (Studies 1 and 2), predicted changes in self-esteem in response to hypothetical events (Study 3), and recall of changes in self-esteem in retrospective accounts (Study 4). Overall, results supported the acceptance hypothesis: acceptance influenced self-esteem more than did competence.
TL;DR: The downside of feeling better: Self-regard repair harms performance as discussed by the authors, and the negative effect of self-love on self-identity and self-esteem is discussed.
Abstract: (2008). The downside of feeling better: Self-regard repair harms performance. Self and Identity: Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 262-277.
TL;DR: An initial test of the hypothesis that individuals engaging in social comparisons would manipulate cognitive representations of themselves and comparison targets in ways that allowed them to self-enhance showed that participants altered cognitive representations in ways associated with greater perceived similarity to upward comparison targets and less similarity to downward comparison targets.
Abstract: Social comparisons allow individuals to gain knowledge of their traits and abilities. Individuals frequently have self-enhancement goals when processing self-relevant information. This study provided an initial test of the hypothesis that individuals engaging in social comparisons would manipulate cognitive representations of themselves and comparison targets in ways that allowed them to self-enhance. Participants were presented with upward, downward, or no social comparison information about their intelligence. They then completed a task, designed for this program of research, which assessed how participants altered cognitive representations of social comparison information. Results showed that participants altered cognitive representations in ways associated with greater perceived similarity to upward comparison targets and less similarity to downward comparison targets. This effect was moderated by self-esteem, suggesting that the process of manipulating cognitive representations of self-relevant infor...