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Showing papers in "Smart Materials and Structures in 2014"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, shape memory polymers and their composites (SMPs and SMPCs) can respond to specific external stimulus and remember the original shape, and the stimulus methods are discussed to demonstrate the shape recovery effect.
Abstract: As a new class of smart materials, shape memory polymers and their composites (SMPs and SMPCs) can respond to specific external stimulus and remember the original shape. There are many types of stimulus methods to actuate the deformation of SMPs and SMPCs, of which the thermal- and electro-responsive components and structures are common. In this review, the general mechanism of SMPs and SMPCs are first introduced, the stimulus methods are then discussed to demonstrate the shape recovery effect, and finally, the applications of SMPs and SMPCs that are reinforced with fiber materials in aerospace are reviewed. SMPC hinges and booms are discussed in the part on components; the booms can be divided again into foldable SMPC truss booms, coilable SMPC truss booms and storable tubular extendible member (STEM) booms. In terms of SMPC structures, the solar array and deployable panel, reflector antenna and morphing wing are introduced in detail. Considering the factors of weight, recovery force and shock effect, SMPCs are expected to have great potential applications in aerospace.

810 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: An overview of piezoelectric polymers based on their operating principle is given in this paper, which includes three main categories: bulk polymers, piezocomposites and voided charged polymers.
Abstract: Polymer based MEMS and microfluidic devices have the advantages of mechanical flexibility, lower fabrication cost and faster processing over silicon based ones. Also, many polymer materials are considered biocompatible and can be used in biological applications. A valuable class of polymers for microfabricated devices is piezoelectric functional polymers. In addition to the normal advantages of polymers, piezoelectric polymers can be directly used as an active material in different transduction applications. This paper gives an overview of piezoelectric polymers based on their operating principle. This includes three main categories: bulk piezoelectric polymers, piezocomposites and voided charged polymers. State-of-the-art piezopolymers of each category are presented with a focus on fabrication techniques and material properties. A comparison between the different piezoelectric polymers and common inorganic piezoelectric materials (PZT, ZnO, AlN and PMN?PT) is also provided in terms of piezoelectric properties. The use of piezopolymers in different electromechanical devices is also presented. This includes tactile sensors, energy harvesters, acoustic transducers and inertial sensors.

778 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A review of recent developments in the rapidly changing and advancing field of smart fabric sensor and electronic textile technologies can be found in this article, which summarizes the basic principles and approaches employed when building fabric sensors as well as the most commonly used materials and techniques used in electronic textiles.
Abstract: This paper provides a review of recent developments in the rapidly changing and advancing field of smart fabric sensor and electronic textile technologies. It summarizes the basic principles and approaches employed when building fabric sensors as well as the most commonly used materials and techniques used in electronic textiles. This paper shows that sensing functionality can be created by intrinsic and extrinsic modifications to textile substrates depending on the level of integration into the fabric platform. The current work demonstrates that fabric sensors can be tailored to measure force, pressure, chemicals, humidity and temperature variations. Materials, connectors, fabric circuits, interconnects, encapsulation and fabrication methods associated with fabric technologies prove to be customizable and versatile but less robust than their conventional electronics counterparts. The findings of this survey suggest that a complete smart fabric system is possible through the integration of the different types of textile based functional elements. This work intends to be a starting point for standardization of smart fabric sensing techniques and e-textile fabrication methods.

618 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors use active composites with shape memory polymer fibers precisely printed in an elastomeric matrix and use them as intelligent active hinges to enable origami folding patterns.
Abstract: Recent advances in three dimensional (3D) printing technology that allow multiple materials to be printed within each layer enable the creation of materials and components with precisely controlled heterogeneous microstructures. In addition, active materials, such as shape memory polymers, can be printed to create an active microstructure within a solid. These active materials can subsequently be activated in a controlled manner to change the shape or configuration of the solid in response to an environmental stimulus. This has been termed 4D printing, with the 4th dimension being the time-dependent shape change after the printing. In this paper, we advance the 4D printing concept to the design and fabrication of active origami, where a flat sheet automatically folds into a complicated 3D component. Here we print active composites with shape memory polymer fibers precisely printed in an elastomeric matrix and use them as intelligent active hinges to enable origami folding patterns. We develop a theoretical model to provide guidance in selecting design parameters such as fiber dimensions, hinge length, and programming strains and temperature. Using the model, we design and fabricate several active origami components that assemble from flat polymer sheets, including a box, a pyramid, and two origami airplanes. In addition, we directly print a 3D box with active composite hinges and program it to assume a temporary flat shape that subsequently recovers to the 3D box shape on demand.

558 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present a state-of-the-art review on the recent progress of magnetorheological elastomer technology, with special emphasis on the research and development of MR elastomers and their applications.
Abstract: During the last few decades, magnetorheological (MR) elastomers have attracted a significant amount of attention for their enormous potential in engineering applications. Because they are a solid counterpart to MR fluids, MR elastomers exhibit a unique field-dependent material property when exposed to a magnetic field, and they overcome major issues faced in magnetorheological fluids, e.g. the deposition of iron particles, sealing problems and environmental contamination. Such advantages offer great potential for designing intelligent devices to be used in various engineering fields, especially in fields that involve vibration reduction and isolation. This paper presents a state of the art review on the recent progress of MR elastomer technology, with special emphasis on the research and development of MR elastomer devices and their applications. To keep the integrity of the knowledge, this review includes a brief introduction of MR elastomer materials and follows with a discussion of critical issues involved in designing magnetorheological elastomer devices, i.e. operation modes, coil placements and principle fundamentals. A comprehensive review has been presented on the research and development of MR elastomer devices, including vibration absorbers, vibration isolators, base isolators, sensing devices, and so on. A summary of the research on the modeling mechanical behavior for both the material and the devices is presented. Finally, the challenges and the potential facing magnetorheological elastomer technology are discussed, and suggestions have been made based on the authors’ knowledge and experience.

498 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article is a survey and analysis of prior work on active self-folding structures as well as methods and tools available for the design of folding structures in general and self- folded structures in particular to provide researchers and practitioners with a systematic view of the state-of-the-art.
Abstract: Origami, the ancient art of paper folding, has inspired the design of engineering devices and structures for decades. The underlying principles of origami are very general, which has led to applications ranging from cardboard containers to deployable space structures. More recently, researchers have become interested in the use of active materials (i.e., those that convert various forms of energy into mechanical work) to effect the desired folding behavior. When used in a suitable geometry, active materials allow engineers to create self-folding structures. Such structures are capable of performing folding and/or unfolding operations without being kinematically manipulated by external forces or moments. This is advantageous for many applications including space systems, underwater robotics, small scale devices, and self-assembling systems. This article is a survey and analysis of prior work on active self-folding structures as well as methods and tools available for the design of folding structures in general and self-folding structures in particular. The goal is to provide researchers and practitioners with a systematic view of the state-of-the-art in this important and evolving area. Unifying structural principles for active self-folding structures are identified and used as a basis for a quantitative and qualitative comparison of numerous classes of active materials. Design considerations specific to folded structures are examined, including the issues of crease pattern identification and fold kinematics. Although few tools have been created with active materials in mind, many of them are useful in the overall design process for active self-folding structures. Finally, the article concludes with a discussion of open questions for the field of origami-inspired engineering.

364 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Shape memory alloys (SMAs) as discussed by the authors are a unique class of metallic materials with the ability to recover their original shape at certain characteristic temperatures (shape memory effect), even under high applied loads and large inelastic deformations, or to undergo large strains without plastic deformation or failure (super-elasticity).
Abstract: Shape memory alloys (SMAs) are a unique class of metallic materials with the ability to recover their original shape at certain characteristic temperatures (shape memory effect), even under high applied loads and large inelastic deformations, or to undergo large strains without plastic deformation or failure (super-elasticity). In this review, we describe the main features of SMAs, their constitutive models and their properties. We also review the fatigue behavior of SMAs and some methods adopted to remove or reduce its undesirable effects. SMAs have been used in a wide variety of applications in different fields. In this review, we focus on the use of shape memory alloys in the context of morphing aircraft, with particular emphasis on variable twist and camber, and also on actuation bandwidth and reduction of power consumption. These applications prove particularly challenging because novel configurations are adopted to maximize integration and effectiveness of SMAs, which play the role of an actuator (using the shape memory effect), often combined with structural, load-carrying capabilities. Iterative and multi-disciplinary modeling is therefore necessary due to the fluid–structure interaction combined with the nonlinear behavior of SMAs.

307 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, shape memory composites are used for self-folding and self-sealing in an oven, and the resulting structures are found to be able to bear up to twice the load of unsealed structures.
Abstract: Self-folding is an approach used frequently in nature for the efficient fabrication of structures, but is seldom used in engineered systems. Here, self-folding origami are presented, which consist of shape memory composites that are activated with uniform heating in an oven. These composites are rapidly fabricated using inexpensive materials and tools. The folding mechanism based on the in-plane contraction of a sheet of shape memory polymer is modeled, and parameters for the design of composites that self-fold into target shapes are characterized. Four self-folding shapes are demonstrated: a cube, an icosahedron, a flower, and a Miura pattern; each of which is activated in an oven in less than 4 min. Self-sealing is also investigated using hot melt adhesive, and the resulting structures are found to bear up to twice the load of unsealed structures.

255 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the additive manufacturing process affects structural and functional properties of additively manufactured NiTi and how the process parameter set-up can be optimized to produce high quality NiTi parts and components.
Abstract: Additive manufacturing provides an attractive processing method for nickel–titanium (NiTi) shape memory and pseudoelastic parts. In this paper, we show how the additive manufacturing process affects structural and functional properties of additively manufactured NiTi and how the process parameter set-up can be optimized to produce high quality NiTi parts and components. Comparisons of shape recovery due to shape memory and pseudoelasticity in additively manufactured and commercial NiTi exhibit promising potential for this innovative processing method.

235 citations



Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a wearable thermoelectric generator (TEG) was implemented in fabric for use in clothing, which achieved a power of 224 nW for a temperature difference of 15 K.
Abstract: This paper presents the realization of a wearable thermoelectric generator (TEG) in fabric for use in clothing. A TEG was fabricated by dispenser printing of Bi0.5Sb1.5Te3 and Bi2Se0.3Te2.7 in a polymer-based fabric. The prototype consisted of 12 thermocouples connected by conductive thread over an area of 6 × 25 mm2. The device generated a power of 224 nW for a temperature difference of 15 K. When the TEG was used on the human body, the measured output power was 224 nW in an ambient temperature of 5 °C. The power of the TEG was affected by the movement of the wearer. A higher voltage was maintained while walking than in a stationary state. In addition, the device did not deform after it was bent and stretched several times. The prospect of using the TEG in clothing applications was confirmed under realistic conditions.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a modified delay-and-sum algorithm is proposed for detecting impact damage in composite plates with and without a stiffener, which is shown to capture and localize damage with only four transducers.
Abstract: Piezoelectric sensors are increasingly being used in active structural health monitoring, due to their durability, light weight and low power consumption. In the present work damage detection and characterization methodologies based on Lamb waves have been evaluated for aircraft panels. The applicability of various proposed delay-and-sum algorithms on isotropic and composite stiffened panels have been investigated, both numerically and experimentally. A numerical model for ultrasonic wave propagation in composite laminates is proposed and compared to signals recorded from experiments. A modified delay-and-sum algorithm is then proposed for detecting impact damage in composite plates with and without a stiffener which is shown to capture and localize damage with only four transducers.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the concept of an acoustic black hole (ABH) is explored as a main design framework for performing dynamic structural tailoring of mechanical systems for vibration energy harvesting applications.
Abstract: This paper explores the concept of an acoustic black hole (ABH) as a main design framework for performing dynamic structural tailoring of mechanical systems for vibration energy harvesting applications. The ABH is an integral feature embedded in the host structure that allows for a smooth reduction of the phase velocity, theoretically approaching zero, while minimizing the reflected energy. This mechanism results in structural areas with high energy density that can be effectively exploited to develop enhanced vibration-based energy harvesting. Fully coupled electro-mechanical models of an ABH tapered structure with surface mounted piezo-transducers are developed to numerically simulate the response of the system to both steady state and transient excitations. The design performances are numerically evaluated using structural intensity data as well as the instantaneous voltage/power and energy output produced by the piezo-transducer network. Results show that the dynamically tailored structural design enables a drastic increase in the harvested energy as compared to traditional structures, both under steady state and transient excitation conditions.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors developed a quantitative understanding of the symmetric waterbomb base's kinetic behavior by completing kinematic and potential energy analyses to understand and predict bistable behavior.
Abstract: The origami waterbomb base is a single-vertex bistable origami mechanism that has unique properties which may prove useful in a variety of applications. It also shows promise as a test bed for smart materials and actuation because of its straightforward geometry and multiple phases of motion, ranging from simple to more complex. This study develops a quantitative understanding of the symmetric waterbomb baseʼs kinetic behavior. This is done by completing kinematic and potential energy analyses to understand and predict bistable behavior. A physical prototype is constructed and tested to validate the results of the analyses. Finite element and virtual work analyses based on the prototype are used to explore the locations of the stable equilibrium positions and the force–deflection response. The model results are verified through comparisons to measurements on a physical prototype. The resulting models describe waterbomb base behavior and provide an engineering tool for application development.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the performance of a magnetorheological elastomer-based semi-active/passive variable stiffness and damping isolator (VSDI) in a scaled building system is evaluated.
Abstract: This paper presents the performance of a new magnetorheological elastomer-based semi-active/passive variable stiffness and damping isolator (VSDI) in a scaled building system. The force of the VSDI can be controlled in real time by varying the applied magnetic field. To demonstrate the performance of the VSDI, four prototypes are built and utilized in a scaled three-story building. A Lyapunov-based control strategy is employed and it is demonstrated that it works well for the scaled building system under the scaled El Centro earthquake motion. Experimental results show that the VSDIs significantly reduce the acceleration and relative displacement of the building floors.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a large-area sensing skin for damage detection in concrete structures is proposed, consisting of a thin layer of electrically conductive copper paint that is applied to the surface of the concrete.
Abstract: This paper outlines the development of a large-area sensing skin for damage detection in concrete structures. The developed sensing skin consists of a thin layer of electrically conductive copper paint that is applied to the surface of the concrete. Cracking of the concrete substrate results in the rupture of the sensing skin, decreasing its electrical conductivity locally. The decrease in conductivity is detected with electrical impedance tomography (EIT) imaging. In previous works, electrically based sensing skins have provided only qualitative information on the damage on the substrate surface. In this paper, we study whether quantitative imaging of the damage is possible. We utilize application-specific models and computational methods in the image reconstruction, including a total variation (TV) prior model for the damage and an approximate correction of the modeling errors caused by the inhomogeneity of the painted sensing skin. The developed damage detection method is tested experimentally by applying the sensing skin to polymeric substrates and a reinforced concrete beam under four-point bending. In all test cases, the EIT-based sensing skin provides quantitative information on cracks and/or other damages on the substrate surface: featuring a very low conductivity in the damage locations, and a reliable indication of the lengths and shapes of the cracks. The results strongly support the applicability of the painted EIT-based sensing skin for damage detection in reinforced concrete elements and other substrates.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A photolithographic approach to create functional stimuli responsive, self-folding, microscale hydrogel devices using thin, gradient cross-linked hinges and thick, fully cross- linked panels with reversible stimuli responsive properties just below physiological temperatures is described.
Abstract: We describe a photolithographic approach to create functional stimuli responsive, self-folding, microscale hydrogel devices using thin, gradient cross-linked hinges and thick, fully cross-linked panels The hydrogels are composed of poly (N-isopropylacrylamide-co-acrylic acid) (pNIPAM-AAc) with reversible stimuli responsive properties just below physiological temperatures We show that a variety of three-dimensional structures can be formed and reversibly actuated by temperature or pH We experimentally characterized the swelling and mechanical properties of pNIPAM-AAc and developed a finite element model to rationalize self-folding and its variation with hinge thickness and swelling ratio Finally, we highlight applications of this approach in the creation of functional devices such as self-folding polymeric micro-capsules, untethered micro-grippers and thermally steered micro-mirror systems

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a Bernoulli-Euler beam model is proposed to investigate the electromechanical coupling response of piezoelectric nanostructures, in which the effects of surface elasticity, dielectricity and pieziolectricness as well as bulk flexoelectoricity are all taken into consideration.
Abstract: The effects of surface and flexoelectricity have been found in the presence of strong size dependence and should be technically taken into account for nano-scaled dielectric structures. This paper proposes a Bernoulli–Euler beam model to investigate the electromechanical coupling response of piezoelectric nanostructures, in which the effects of surface elasticity, dielectricity and piezoelectricity as well as bulk flexoelectricity are all taken into consideration. The governing equations with non-classical boundary conditions are naturally derived from a variational principle. Then the present beam model is directly applied to solve the static bending problems of cantilever beams. Without considering the residual surface stresses, the bending rigidity can be defined the same as that in classical piezoelectricity theory. The bending rigidity is found to increase for silicon nanowires and decrease for silver nanowires. Also the flexoelectric effect in piezoelectric nanowires has a momentous influence on the bending rigidity. The residual surface stresses which are usually neglected are found to be more important than the surface elasticity for the bending of nanowires. However, this has no influence on the effective electromechanical coupling coefficient. The deflections reveal the significance of the residual surface stresses and the bulk flexoelectric effects. The effective electromechanical coupling coefficient for piezoelectric nanowires is dramatically enhanced, which demonstrates the significant effects of the bulk flexoelectricity and surface piezoelectricity. The effects of surface and flexoelectricity decrease with the increase of the beam thickness, and therefore these effects can be ignored for large-scale structures. This work is very helpful in designing cantilever-beam-based nano-electro-devices.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a variable stiffness and damping isolator (VSDI) is designed based on an optimized magnetic field passing through MRE layers to achieve maximum changes in mechanical properties.
Abstract: This paper presents theoretical modeling of a new magnetorheological elastomer (MRE) base isolator and its performance for vibration control. The elastomeric element of the traditional steel–rubber base isolator is modified to a composite layer of passive elastomer and MRE which makes the isolator controllable with respect to its stiffness and damping. The proposed variable stiffness and damping isolator (VSDI) is designed based on an optimized magnetic field passing through MRE layers to achieve maximum changes in mechanical properties. The controllability of the VSDI is investigated experimentally under double lap shear tests. A model employing the Bouc–Wen hysteresis element is proposed to characterize the force–displacement relationship of the VSDI. An integrated system which consists of four VSDIs is designed, built and tested. Dynamic testing on the integrated system is performed to investigate the effectiveness of the VSDIs for vibration control. Experimental results show significant shift in natural frequency, when VSDIs are activated and the possibility of using the VSDIs as a controllable base isolator.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors demonstrate that the recently presented iFEM for beam and frame structures is reliable when experimentally measured strains are used as input data, i.e., reconstruction of the displacement field of a structure from surface-measured strains, has relevant implications for the monitoring, control and actuation of smart structures.
Abstract: Shape sensing, i.e., reconstruction of the displacement field of a structure from surface-measured strains, has relevant implications for the monitoring, control and actuation of smart structures. The inverse finite element method (iFEM) is a shape-sensing methodology shown to be fast, accurate and robust. This paper aims to demonstrate that the recently presented iFEM for beam and frame structures is reliable when experimentally measured strains are used as input data.The theoretical framework of the methodology is first reviewed. Timoshenko beam theory is adopted, including stretching, bending, transverse shear and torsion deformation modes. The variational statement and its discretization with C0-continuous inverse elements are briefly recalled. The three-dimensional displacement field of the beam structure is reconstructed under the condition that least-squares compatibility is guaranteed between the measured strains and those interpolated within the inverse elements.The experimental setup is then described. A thin-walled cantilevered beam is subjected to different static and dynamic loads. Measured surface strains are used as input data for shape sensing at first with a single inverse element. For the same test cases, convergence is also investigated using an increasing number of inverse elements. The iFEM-recovered deflections and twist rotations are then compared with those measured experimentally. The accuracy, convergence and robustness of the iFEM with respect to unavoidable measurement errors, due to strain sensor locations, measurement systems and geometry imperfections, are demonstrated for both static and dynamic loadings.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Based on the nonlocal Love's shell theory, an embedded magneto-electro-elastic (MEE) cylindrical nanoshell model incorporating effects of the small scale parameter and thermo-electron-magnetic loadings was developed in this article.
Abstract: Based on the nonlocal Love's shell theory, this paper develops an embedded magneto-electro-elastic (MEE) cylindrical nanoshell model. This model incorporates effects of the small scale parameter and thermo-electro-magnetic loadings. The surrounding elastic medium is described as the Winkler model characterized by the spring. By using this model and the Hamilton principle, the governing equations and boundary conditions are derived for free vibration of the embedded MEE cylindrical nanoshells. The Navier's method is first utilized to obtain the analytical solution for the simply supported MEE nanoshell. Then, numerical solutions for MEE nanoshells under various boundary conditions are obtained by using the differential quadrature (DQ) method. A detailed parametric study is conducted to highlight the influences of the nonlocal parameter, temperature rise, external electric potential, external magnetic potential, spring constant, radius-to-thickness ratio and length-to-radius ratio on natural frequencies of MEE nanoshells.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a multilayered magneto-rheological elastomer (MRE) isolator with a hybrid magnet was first designed, fabricated and then tested to measure its properties.
Abstract: Magneto-rheological elastomers (MREs) have attracted notable credits in the development of smart isolators and absorbers due to their controllable stiffness and damping properties. For the purpose of mitigating unwanted structural and/or machinery vibrations, the traditional MREbased isolators have been generally proven effective because the MR effect can increase the stiffness when the magnetic field is strengthened. This study presents a novel MRE isolator that experienced reduced stiffness when the applied current was increased. This innovative work was accomplished by applying a hybrid magnet (electromagnet and permanent magnets) onto a multilayered MRE structure. To characterise this negative changing stiffness concept, a multilayered MRE isolator with a hybrid magnet was first designed, fabricated and then tested to measure its properties. An obvious reduction of the effective stiffness and natural frequency of the proposed MRE isolator occurred when the current was continuously adjusted. This device could also work as a conventional MRE isolator as its effective stiffness and natural frequency also increased when a negative current was applied. Further testing was carried out on a onedegree-of-freedom system to assess how effectively this device could isolate vibration. In this experiment, two cases were considered; in each case, the vibration of the primary system was obviously attenuated under ON-OFF control logic, thus demonstrating the feasibility of this novel design as an alternative adaptive vibration isolator.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a hollow cylindrical near-field electrospinning (HCNFES) process was proposed to address production and performance issues encountered previously in either far-field or nearfield electro-spinning processes.
Abstract: One-dimensional piezoelectric nanomaterials have attracted great attention in recent years for their possible applications in mechanical energy scavenging devices. However, it is difficult to control the structural diameter, length, and density of these fibers fabricated by micro/nano-technologies. This work presents a hollow cylindrical near-field electrospinning (HCNFES) process to address production and performance issues encountered previously in either far-field electrospinning (FFES) or near-field electrospinning (NFES) processes. Oriented polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) fibers in the form of nonwoven fabric have been directly written on a glass tube for aligned piezoelectricity. Under a high in situ electrical poling field and strong mechanical stretching (the tangential speed on the glass tube collector is about 1989.3 mm s−1), the HCNFES process is able to uniformly deposit large arrays of PVDF fibers with good concentrations of piezoelectric β-phase. The nonwoven fiber fabric (NFF) is transferred onto a polyethylene terephthalate (PET) substrate and fixed at both ends using copper foil electrodes as a flexible textile-fiber-based PVDF energy harvester. Repeated stretching and releasing of PVDF NFF with a strain of 0.05% at 7 Hz produces a maximum peak voltage and current at 76 mV and 39 nA, respectively.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a new additive manufacturing (AM) process was proposed to directly and continuously print piezoelectric devices from polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) polymeric filament rods under a strong electric field.
Abstract: This paper presents a new additive manufacturing (AM) process to directly and continuously print piezoelectric devices from polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) polymeric filament rods under a strong electric field. This process, called ?electric poling-assisted additive manufacturing or EPAM, combines AM and electric poling processes and is able to fabricate free-form shape piezoelectric devices continuously. In this process, the PVDF polymer dipoles remain well-aligned and uniform over a large area in a single design, production and fabrication step. During EPAM process, molten PVDF polymer is simultaneously mechanically stresses in-situ by the leading nozzle and electrically poled by applying high electric field under high temperature. The EPAM system was constructed to directly print piezoelectric structures from PVDF polymeric filament while applying high electric field between nozzle tip and printing bed in AM machine. Piezoelectric devices were successfully fabricated using the EPAM process. The crystalline phase transitions that occurred from the process were identified by using the Fourier transform infrared spectroscope. The results indicate that devices printed under a strong electric field become piezoelectric during the EPAM process and that stronger electric fields result in greater piezoelectricity as marked by the electrical response and the formation of sharper peaks at the polar ? crystalline wavenumber of the PVDF polymer. Performing this process in the absence of an electric field does not result in dipole alignment of PVDF polymer. The EPAM process is expected to lead to the widespread use of AM to fabricate a variety of piezoelectric PVDF polymer-based devices for sensing, actuation and energy harvesting applications with simple, low cost, single processing and fabrication step.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a new method is proposed to harvest energy based on the piezoelectric effect for track vibration in order to provide power for the wireless sensors which monitor railroad health.
Abstract: This research is focused on energy harvesting from track vibration in order to provide power for the wireless sensors which monitor railroad health. Considering that track vibration has vibration energy, a new method is proposed in the paper to harvest energy based on the piezoelectric effect. The piezoelectric generator called drum transducer is the key part for track vibration energy harvesting. The model of drum transducer is established and the simulation results show that it can generate 100 mW in real track situation. In addition, an experiment rig is developed and its vibration model is also established. The simulation and experiment results show that peak open-circuit voltage of piezoelectric generator is about 50–70 V at the full load of the train. The whole track vibration energy harvesting system is analytically modeled, numerically simulated, and experimentally realized to demonstrate the feasibility and the reliability of the theoretical model. This paper is the theoretical basis of harvesting, recovering and recycling of the track vibration energy for track safety.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a deployable cellular origami structure is described, which is bi-directionally flat-foldable in two orthogonal (x and y) directions and relatively stiff in the third orthogonality (z) direction.
Abstract: A novel origami cellular material based on a deployable cellular origami structure is described. The structure is bi-directionally flat-foldable in two orthogonal (x and y) directions and is relatively stiff in the third orthogonal (z) direction. While such mechanical orthotropicity is well known in cellular materials with extruded two dimensional geometry, the interleaved tube geometry presented here consists of two orthogonal axes of interleaved tubes with high interfacial surface area and relative volume that changes with fold-state. In addition, the foldability still allows for fabrication by a flat lamination process, similar to methods used for conventional expanded two dimensional cellular materials. This article presents the geometric characteristics of the structure together with corresponding kinematic and mechanical modeling, explaining the orthotropic elastic behavior of the structure with classical dimensional scaling analysis.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, two novel solutions for strain sensing using nanocomposite materials were developed for the monitoring of local information on large-scale structures, which are different in their applications and physical principles.
Abstract: The authors have recently developed two novel solutions for strain sensing using nanocomposite materials. While they both aim at providing cost-effective solutions for the monitoring of local information on large-scale structures, the technologies are different in their applications and physical principles. One sensor is made of a cementitious material, which could make it suitable for embedding within the core of concrete structures prior to casting, and is a resistor, consisting of a carbon nanotube cement-based transducer. The other sensor can be used to create an external sensing skin and is a capacitor, consisting of a flexible conducting elastomer fabricated from a nanocomposite mix, and deployable in a network setup to cover large structural surfaces. In this paper, we advance the understanding of nanocomposite sensing technologies by investigating the potential of both novel sensors for the dynamic monitoring of civil structures. First, an in-depth dynamic characterization of the sensors using a uniaxial test machine is conducted. Second, their performance at dynamic monitoring of a full-scale concrete beam is assessed, and compared against off-the-shelf accelerometers. Experimental results show that both novel technologies compare well against mature sensors at vibration-based structural health monitoring, showing the promise of nanocomposite technologies for the monitoring of large-scale structural systems.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a shape memory polymer auxetic hexachiral structure is tailored to provide a tunable stiffness response in its fully deployed state by varying the angle of inter-hub connections, and yet is still able to undergo thermally stimulated deployment.
Abstract: Planar auxetic structures have the potential to impact on a wide range of applications from deployable and morphing structures to space-filling composite and medical treatments. The ability to fabricate auxetics from smart materials greatly enhances this facility by building in controllable actuation and deployment. A smart auxetic device can be compressed and fixed into a storage state. When deployment is required the device can be appropriately stimulated and the stored elastic energy is released, resulting in a marked structural expansion. Instead of using a conventional external actuator to drive deployment the material is made to undergo phase transition where one stimulus (e.g. heat) initiates a mechanical response. Here we show how smart material auxetics can be realized using a thermally responsive shape memory polymer composites. We show how a shape memory polymer auxetic hexachiral structure can be tailored to provide a tunable stiffness response in its fully deployed state by varying the angle of inter-hub connections, and yet is still able to undergo thermally stimulated deployment.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, an energy harvester for environments that rotate through the Earth's gravitational field is presented, which uses the unique dynamics of an offset pendulum along with a nonlinear bistable restoring spring to improve the operational bandwidth.
Abstract: We present an energy harvester for environments that rotate through the Earth’s gravitational field. Example applications include shafts connected to motors, axles, propellers, fans, and wheels or tires. Our approach uses the unique dynamics of an offset pendulum along with a nonlinear bistable restoring spring to improve the operational bandwidth of the system. Depending on the speed of the rotating environment, the system can act as a bistable oscillator, monostable stiffening oscillator, or linear oscillator. We apply our approach to a tire pressure monitoring system mounted on a car rim. Simulation and experimental test results show that the prototype generator is capable of directly powering an RF transmission every 60 s or less over a speed range of 10 to 155 kph.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a proof-of-concept for a head-mounted device with a PFC chin strap capable of harvesting energy from jaw movements is presented. But despite their excellent potential for energy harvesting, very few PFC mechanisms have been developed to capture the human body power and convert it into an electric current to power wearable electronic devices.
Abstract: Piezoelectric fiber composites (PFC) represent an interesting subset of smart materials that can function as sensor, actuator and energy converter. Despite their excellent potential for energy harvesting, very few PFC mechanisms have been developed to capture the human body power and convert it into an electric current to power wearable electronic devices. This paper provides a proof of concept for a head-mounted device with a PFC chin strap capable of harvesting energy from jaw movements. An electromechanical model based on the bond graph method is developed to predict the power output of the energy harvesting system. The optimum resistance value of the load and the best stretch ratio in the strap are also determined. A prototype was developed and tested and its performances were compared to the analytical model predictions. The proposed piezoelectric strap mechanism can be added to all types of head-mounted devices to power small-scale electronic devices such as hearing aids, electronic hearing protectors and communication earpieces.