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Showing papers in "Social and Personality Psychology Compass in 2016"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors synthesize research on intention-behavior relations to address questions such as: How big is the intention−behavior gap? When are intentions more or less likely to get translated into action? What kinds of problems prevent people from realizing their intentions? And what strategies show promise in closing the intention −behavior gap and helping people do the things that they intend to do.
Abstract: © 2016 John Wiley & Sons LtdBitter personal experience and meta-analysis converge on the conclusion that people do not always do the things that they intend to do. This paper synthesizes research on intention–behavior relations to address questions such as: How big is the intention–behavior gap? When are intentions more or less likely to get translated into action? What kinds of problems prevent people from realizing their intentions? And what strategies show promise in closing the intention–behavior gap and helping people do the things that they intend to do?.

923 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors outline the need to conduct a meta-analysis on one's own studies within a manuscript and provide a user-friendly guide on calculating some metaanalytic procedures that are appropriate when there are only a few studies.
Abstract: We outline the need to, and provide a guide on how to, conduct a meta-analysis on one's own studies within a manuscript. Although conducting a “mini meta” within one's manuscript has been argued for in the past, this practice is still relatively rare and adoption is slow. We believe two deterrents are responsible. First, researchers may not think that it is legitimate to do a meta-analysis on a small number of studies. Second, researchers may think a meta-analysis is too complicated to do without expert knowledge or guidance. We dispel these two misconceptions by (1) offering arguments on why researchers should be encouraged to do mini metas, (2) citing previous articles that have conducted such analyses to good effect, and (3) providing a user-friendly guide on calculating some meta-analytic procedures that are appropriate when there are only a few studies. We provide formulas for calculating effect sizes and converting effect sizes from one metric to another (e.g., from Cohen's d to r), as well as annotated Excel spreadsheets and a step-by-step guide on how to conduct a simple meta-analysis. A series of related studies can be strengthened and better understood if accompanied by a mini meta-analysis.

608 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a meta-analysis of these programs show that they have had some success in establishing the most effective components and in tackling cyberbullying, however, further progress is needed in establishing effective components in establishing and tackling cyber bullying.
Abstract: Bullying is repetitive aggressive behaviour with an imbalance of power. Research, especially on school bullying, has increased massively in the last decade, fuelled in part by the rise of cyberbullying. Prevalence rates vary greatly. This is in part because of measurement issues, but some persons, and groups, are more at risk of involvement. Victims suffer from bullying, but some of those who perpetrate bullying can be socially skilled and get at least short-term benefits from their behaviour. Individual, family, school class, school and broader country factors can influence the chances of involvement. Beyond individual coping strategies, there have been many anti-bullying interventions developed over the last 30 years. Meta-analyses of these programmes show that they have had some success. Further progress is needed in establishing the most effective components and in tackling cyberbullying.

141 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The ability to successfully regulate emotion plays a key role in healthy development and the maintenance of psychological well-being as mentioned in this paper, and moving toward this goal represents a central challenge for the future of the field.
Abstract: The ability to successfully regulate emotion plays a key role in healthy development and the maintenance of psychological well-being. Although great strides have been made in understanding the nature of regulatory processes and the consequences of deploying them, a comprehensive understanding of emotion regulation that can specify what strategies are most beneficial for a given person in a given situation is still a far-off goal. In this review, we argue that moving toward this goal represents a central challenge for the future of the field. As an initial step, we propose a concrete framework that (i) explicitly considers emotion regulation as an interaction of person, situation, and strategy, (ii) assumes that regulatory effects vary according to these factors, and (iii) sets as a primary scientific goal the identification of person-, situation-, and strategy-based contingencies for successful emotion regulation. Guided by this framework, we review current questions facing the field, discuss examples of contextual variation in emotion regulation success, and offer practical suggestions for continued progress in this area.

101 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors discuss the role of reputation in human cooperation and propose three directions for future research: group stability and reputation-based cooperation, solutions to cope with noise and biased reputation, and the relative efficiency of positive versus negative reputation systems.
Abstract: Why do people cooperate? We address this classic question by analyzing and discussing the role of reputation: people cooperate to maintain a positive reputation in their social environment. Reputation is a key element fueling a system of indirect reciprocity, where cooperators establish a good reputation and are thus more likely to receive future benefits from third parties. The tendencies to monitor, spread, and manage each other's reputation help explain the abundance of human cooperation with unrelated strangers. We review research on the phenomenon of reputation-based cooperation in the domains of how people manage their reputation in response to varying cues of reputation, when reputation can promote cooperation, and individual differences in reputation management. We also propose three directions for future research: group stability and reputation-based cooperation, solutions to cope with noise and biased reputation, and the relative efficiency of positive versus negative reputation systems.

97 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In a time when racial prejudice is generally taboo and decision makers, including law enforcement officials, strenuously disavow the use of group-based stereotypes to make judgments that affect others, one might expect discriminatory outcomes to be unusual as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: In a time when racial prejudice is generally taboo and decision makers, including law enforcement officials, strenuously disavow the use of group-based stereotypes to make judgments that affect others, one might expect discriminatory outcomes to be unusual. However, research repeatedly indicates that discrimination is pervasive across many domains, and specifically in policing. A major cause of biased policing is likely the implicit biases that operate outside of conscious awareness and control but nevertheless influence our behaviors. Implicit biases (e.g., stereotypes linking Blacks with crime or with related traits like violence or hostility) influence judgments through processes of misattribution and disambiguation. Although psychological science gives us good insight into the causes of racially biased policing, there are as yet no known, straightforward, effective intervention programs. Nevertheless, there are several strands of research that represent promising avenues for further exploration, including intergroup contact, exposure to counter-stereotypic exemplars, and stereotype negation. Meanwhile, many police departments are adjusting their policies, trainings, and procedures to try to address biased policing and community complaints. Several common themes among those changes include banning racial profiling, collecting data, training officers, reducing discretion, and adopting new technologies. These adjustments are more likely to be successful if they incorporate the understanding that biased policing occurs in the absence of explicitly “racist” thoughts because of well-documented, pernicious stereotypes that operate largely outside of conscious awareness and control.

97 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper identified two subtypes of envy, benign and malicious envy, and discussed the benefits of a subtype approach to envy, with the main advantages of distinguishing envy being that it (a) provides researchers with the language to be clear in how they conceptualize envy and (b) allows novel predictions.
Abstract: Envy is the pain that arises from the good fortune of others. Recent research identified two subtypes of envy, benign and malicious envy. Malicious envy is the envy subtype with action tendencies aimed to pull down the envied person from their superior position. Benign envy is also a frustrating experience, but activates action tendencies aimed at improving oneself. This article provides an overview of the empirical support for making this distinction in envy subtypes. It then discusses the benefits of a subtype approach to envy, with the main advantages of distinguishing benign and malicious envy being that it (a) provides researchers with the language to be clear in how they conceptualize envy and (b) allows novel predictions. A next section provides a response to some criticism on making this distinction. Finally, I conclude with a section on how envy in general, and benign and malicious envy in particular, could be measured.

89 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors focus on personality traits and review the literature on how personality traits influence friendship formation, maintenance, and dissolution, concluding that agreeableness has the most consistent effects on both romantic relationships and friendships.
Abstract: In this paper, we argue that friendship should receive more attention in social/personality research. Here, we focus on our area of expertise, personality traits, and review the literature on how personality traits influence friendship formation, maintenance, and dissolution. Specifically, we examine how personality traits of the actor and partner influence friendship development (i.e., who is more likely to initiate and end friendships, and who is more likely to be the target of friendship initiation and termination). We also discuss dyadic effects, such as personality similarity, on friendship development. Throughout this review, we draw on the literature on personality and romantic relationships to identify the most important gaps in the literature on personality and friendships. Our review suggests that agreeableness has the most consistent effects on both romantic relationships and friendships, followed by neuroticism. Extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness to experience have all been shown to influence relationship development, but their effects are inconsistent. We end with a call for more research on friendship beyond the role of personality traits and suggestions for specific future directions.

84 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, Strathman, Gleicher, Boninger, and Edwards introduced the 12-item consideration of future consequences scale to measure individual differences in the extent to which people base their decisions on the immediate versus future consequences of their actions.
Abstract: In 1994, Strathman, Gleicher, Boninger, and Edwards (1994) introduced the 12-item consideration of future consequences scale to measure individual differences in the extent to which people base their decisions on the immediate versus future consequences of their actions. After tracing the origin and development of the CFC construct, theoretical models, including the awareness and concern models, buffering and susceptibility models, and an integrative model of CFC are outlined. Next, a narrative review of work examining the role of CFC within several outcome domains is presented, including research in the areas of health, financial, work, ethical, and environmental behaviors and decision-making. Measurement issues including the dimensionality of the scale and adaptation to specific domains (e.g., healthy eating) are subsequently considered, and eight directions for future research are discussed.

75 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: How mediation analysis can be better applied to examine causal processes, highlight the limits of simple mediation, and make recommendations for better practice are discussed.
Abstract: Mediation analysis is a popular framework for identifying underlying mechanisms in social psychology. In the context of simple mediation, we review and discuss the implications of three facets of mediation analysis: (a) conceptualization of the relations between the variables, (b) statistical approaches, and (c) relevant elements of design. We also highlight the issue of equivalent models that are inherent in simple mediation. The extent to which results are meaningful stem directly from choices regarding these three facets of mediation analysis. We conclude by discussing how mediation analysis can be better applied to examine causal processes, highlight the limits of simple mediation, and make recommendations for better practice.

68 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a framework that defines the function of emotions as the degree to which discrete emotions result in better outcomes in particular types of situations, focusing on sadness and anger, and review evidence related to the situations that elicit these emotions; the cognitive, physiological, and behavioral changes associated with the emotions; and the extent to which these changes result in demonstrably better outcomes.
Abstract: What do negative emotions do for people? We present a framework that defines the function of emotions as the degree to which discrete emotions result in better outcomes in particular types of situations. Focusing on sadness and anger, we review evidence related to the situations that elicit these emotions; the cognitive, physiological, and behavioral changes associated with the emotions; and the extent to which these changes result in demonstrably better outcomes in the type of situation that elicits the emotion. Sadness is elicited by perceived goal loss without possibility of restoration given current abilities and is associated with deliberative reasoning, reduced physiological activity, and behavioral expression. There is preliminary evidence suggesting that sadness can permit coping with loss, and that expression of sadness can recruit others to assist in goal attainment. Anger is elicited by perceived goal loss that can be prevented if an obstacle is overcome and is associated with heuristic reasoning, increased physiological activity, and behavioral expression. There is evidence that expression of anger prompts others to remove themselves as obstacles, and preliminary evidence that anger can promote overcoming obstacles and goal attainment. Like precision tools, specific emotions are best utilized to resolve particular problems.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, an evolutionarily informed motivational perspective on situation perception is applied to the recently proposed Situational Eight DIAMONDS situation characteristics to provide them with a theoretical underpinning.
Abstract: This article seeks to formulate how motivational factors underlie and contribute to situation perceptions. Specifically, it is proposed that situation perceptions, to a large extent, capture subjectively perceived “motivational presses”, consisting of motivational processes (What happens to one's needs and goals in the situation?) and motivational content (Which needs or goals does the situation concern?). Additionally, such a motivational perspective can be fruitfully equipped with evolutionary psychological theories on human (social) motives. Thus, it is argued that situation perception contains evolutionarily important information on motivational processes and content. An evolutionarily informed motivational perspective on situation perception is applied to the recently proposed Situational Eight DIAMONDS situation characteristics to provide them with a theoretical underpinning. Ultimately, such a framework can be used to better understand situations and person–situation transactions (i.e., how people experience and shape situations in daily life) that can impact well-being, health, and personality development.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors conceptualized surprise as the initial response to unexpected events, which should be differentiated from subsequent states that occur after people had time to make sense of the unexpected outcome, and a review of immediate cognitive correlates of surprise shows that irrespective of the valence of the outcome, the initial responses are the same.
Abstract: Guided by a temporal dynamics perspective, we review and integrate theories and empirical evidence on surprise. We conceptualize surprise as the initial response to unexpected events, which should be differentiated from subsequent states that occur after people had time to make sense of the unexpected outcome. To understand the nature of surprise, it is therefore important to take time into account. Following this, a review of immediate cognitive correlates of surprise shows that irrespective of the valence of the outcome, the initial responses are the same. Moreover, the temporal dynamics perspective reconciles seemingly contradictory findings regarding the valence of surprise, such that studies that focus on surprise while it happens (initial interruption) support the notion that it feels relatively negative, whereas studies that focus on states after cognitive mastering show that subsequent experiential states depend on the valence of the outcome.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examine four cases in which mentally simulating an experience serves a different function, as a substitute for the corresponding experience, and discuss their different methodological approaches and explanatory accounts.
Abstract: People spend a considerable amount of their time mentally simulating experiences other than the one in which they are presently engaged, as a means of distraction, coping, or preparation for the future. In this integrative review, we examine four (non-exhaustive) cases in which mentally simulating an experience serves a different function, as a substitute for the corresponding experience. In each case, mentally simulating an experience evokes similar cognitive, physiological, and/or behavioral consequences as having the corresponding experience in reality: (i) imagined experiences are attributed evidentiary value like physical evidence, (ii) mental practice instantiates the same performance benefits as physical practice, (iii) imagined consumption of a food reduces its actual consumption, and (iv) imagined goal achievement reduces motivation for actual goal achievement. We organize these cases under a common superordinate category and discuss their different methodological approaches and explanatory accounts. Our integration yields theoretical and practical insights into when and why mentally simulating an experience serves as its substitute.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors found that the more positively people fantasize about their desired future, the less effort they invest and the less successful they are in realizing these future goals, but when fantasies about a desired future are complemented with a clear sense of reality, people find the direction and energy needed to realize their fantasies.
Abstract: People often immerse themselves in dreams and fantasies about a desired future. Though such future fantasies are pleasant, they do not necessarily lead to the effort required to attain the desired future. Indeed, the more positively people fantasize about their desired futures, the less effort they invest and the less successful they are in realizing these futures. However, when fantasies about a desired future are complemented with a clear sense of reality, people find the direction and energy needed to realize their fantasies. We review Fantasy Realization Theory, which explicates these ideas and led to the discovery of mental contrasting future and reality, a self-regulation strategy of behavior change. Mental contrasting helps people figure out what they really want and wisely select, commit to, and actively pursue prioritized wishes while constructively dealing with setbacks. It helps them live a rewarding life through work, play, health, and relationships.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Shame research has been divided into a problematic or functional view of shame, with some researchers suggesting that shame is functional as it serves the purpose of gauging when one's social self is threatened, because of a loss of status or social bonds.
Abstract: Shame research has been divided. At present, the shame literature can be broadly dichotomized into whether it argues for a problematic or functional view of shame. Shame is commonly linked, for example, to aggression, poor health and wellbeing, and psychopathologies such as post-traumatic stress disorder, eating disorders, and depression. Some researchers, however, suggest that shame is functional as it serves the purpose of gauging when one's social self is threatened, because of a loss of status or social bonds. To resolve this conflict, shame has been redefined in a variety of ways in an attempt to distinguish functional shame from problematic shame. However, approaches that ever more narrowly define the construct can lead to a defining away of the complexity of the lived experience of shame. In this review, we integrate the conflicting research on shame, examining how shame, as an emotion that evolved for a functional purpose, can become problematic. Avoidance in response to shame can move shame from being a functional social gauge that motivates repair to a problematic emotion, and avoidance is more likely to the extent that shame seems irreparable. Therefore, understanding what factors impact on perceived reparability will be important for understanding how shame can become problematic. How we see ourselves, others, our actions, and the costs of repair are all likely to impact on whether or not shame becomes functional or problematic.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present an approach to honor as multifaceted, defined as having four different facets, or honor codes: morality-based honor, family honor, masculine honor, and feminine honor.
Abstract: This paper presents an approach to honor as multifaceted. In this approach, honor is defined as having four different facets, or honor codes: morality-based honor, family honor, masculine honor, and feminine honor. The honor-as-multifaceted approach has generated much psychological research examining the importance of each honor code across different cultural and social groups. An overview of this research shows that that the different honor codes exert a powerful influence on a variety of group processes, including collective action, in-group identification, the definition of gendered roles within the family, in-group responses to threats to collective honor, intergroup attitudes, and value change within groups. The paper discusses how defining and measuring honor as multifaceted -rather than as an unitary construct- provides a fuller understanding of honor's role in group life.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: For instance, the authors found that people high in sexual communal strength are able to sustain higher sexual desire over the course of time and navigate sexual disagreements in a way that maintains both partners' relationship quality.
Abstract: One important but challenging aspect of maintaining a satisfying romantic relationship is keeping the sexual spark alive. Research suggests the importance of a couple’s sexual connection in the maintenance of their relationship, but sustaining high levels of desire for a partner over the course of time can be difficult. In the current review, we argue that one novel approach to understanding how couples might maintain desire and satisfaction over the course of time in their relationships is applying theories of communal motivation to the domain of sexuality. In this line of research, we have demonstrated that people high in sexual communal strength – those who are motivated to be non-contingently responsive to their partners’ sexual needs – are able to sustain higher sexual desire over the course of time and navigate sexual disagreements in a way that maintains both partners’ relationship quality. Future research directions include broadening the view of sexual needs to include the need to decline or reject a partner’s sexual advances and investigating how partners manage unmet sexual needs. Consider the following description of a long-term couple. Jack and Elaine have been married for nearly 10years and have two young children, and both work outside the home. Although they respect each other, have common interests, and share household tasks, over time, their passion and desire for each other have waned. They often disagree about when and how frequently to engage in sex and when sex does occur, it is often done begrudgingly. They long to reignite the sexual spark they had earlier in their relationship. Popular media messages about sex in relationships would suggest that an important route to maintaining a satisfying sex life involves mastering specific sexual techniques. For example, advice in popular women’s magazines might tell Jack and Elaine about the importance of expanding their sexual repertoire, perhaps advising that they introduce sexual props such as sex toys and lingerie (Menard & Kleinplatz, 2008). Echoing these popular media messages, in research on sexual desire in relationships, clinicians and researchers have primarily focused on examining the associations between individual attitudes and sexual desire. For example, among older adults, a person’s attitude about the importance of sex is a stronger predictor of their sexual desire than healthrelated factors, such as illnesses, hormonal changes, or medication (DeLamater & Sill, 2005). Previous research has found that less sexual guilt (Woo, Brotto, & Gorzalka, 2011) and more positive feelings about one’s own body (Seal, Bradford, & Meston, 2009) are associated with higher sexual desire for a relationship partner. With some notable exceptions (e.g., Rosen, Bergeron, Lambert, & Steben, 2013; Rosen, Bergeron, Leclerc, Lambert, & Steben, 2010), the existing research and popular media messages might suggest that Jack and Elaine should focus on their own individual attitudes about sex, place more value on sex, and become more comfortable with their sexuality as a route to addressing the sexual issues in their relationship. What is limited in the research and common discourse on the maintenance of sexual desire in long-term relationships is a partner-focused or © 2016 John Wiley & Sons Ltd prosocial perspective to understanding how couples can maintain desire over time. This perspective suggests that in addition to accepting and pursuing one’s own sexual pleasure, relationship partners can learn to focus on the experience of giving to each other and delighting in one another’s pleasure. A growing body of research on the psychology of close relationships focuses on the benefits of giving to others. Prosocial behavior, such as providing care to others when in need, is associated with many benefits, not only for the recipient of this care but also for the giver (Canevello & Crocker, 2010; Crocker & Canevello, 2008; Kogan et al., 2010; Le, Impett, Kogan, Webster, & Cheng, 2013). In the current review, we discuss our work applying the social-psychological theory of communal motivation – which stipulates the importance of norms involving giving to a partner based on need without the expectation of direct reciprocation (Clark & Mills, 2012) – to the domain of sexuality and present evidence that a communal approach to sexual relationships is one novel way that we can better understand how couples maintain sexual desire and satisfaction, as well as how romantic partners sustain feelings of connection, even during times when desire and sexual satisfaction are low. The Importance of Maintaining Sexual Desire and Satisfaction in Romantic Relationships Sexuality is a key factor that shapes the quality of romantic relationships (see reviews by Impett, Muise, & Peragine, 2014; Muise, Kim, McNulty, & Impett, 2016). Research has consistently demonstrated that people who are the most satisfied with their sex lives are also the most satisfied with their romantic relationships (e.g., Brezsnyak & Whisman, 2004; Byers, 2005; McNulty, Wenner, & Fisher, 2014; Yeh, Lorenz, Wickrama, Conger, & Elder, 2006). Despite the importance of sex for relationships, couples face numerous challenges to having and maintaining a satisfying sexual relationship. Empirical research reveals that sexual desire tends to peak in the beginning stages of romantic relationships as intimacy is rapidly developing (Baumeister & Bratlavsky, 1999) and then often declines over time as partners become more secure and comfortable in the relationship (see review by Impett et al., 2014). As a result, romantic partners will inevitably encounter times when their sexual interests differ (Impett & Peplau, 2003; O’Suliivan & Byers, 1996), and many long-term couples find themselves in situations in which they have divergent sexual interests (Davies, Katz, & Jackson, 1999; Mark, 2012; Mark & Murray, 2012). For example, couples may disagree about how frequently to engage in sex or the particular activities in which they would like to engage (Byers & Lewis, 1988; Davies et al., 1999; O’Suliivan & Byers, 1996). The importance of sex for the quality of relationships, coupled with the challenges that many couples face maintaining desire and satisfaction over the longer term, highlights the need to understand how couples can maintain and reignite sexual desire and have better sex lives and relationships. Indeed, although sexual desire tends to decline or waver over the course of a relationship on average (Call, Sprecher, & Schwartz, 1995; Sims & Meana, 2010), desire does not decline for everyone (Acevedo &Aron, 2009), and not everyone experiences accompanying declines in relationship satisfaction (Sims & Meana, 2010). Even for the many romantic partners who experience discrepancies in sexual desire or have divergent sexual interests, some are able to navigate these differences with greater success and maintain satisfaction even in the face of sexual disagreements. The close connection between sexual and relationship quality means that good sex is one powerful mechanism for enhancing relationships. When couples can successfully navigate sexual issues and maintain a strong sexual connection over the course of their relationships, feelings of closeness and intimacy in the relationship can be strengthened (Rehman et al., 2011). 456 Sexual Communal Motivation © 2016 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Social and Personality Psychology Compass 10/8 (2016), 455–467, 10.1111/spc3.12261 Applying Communal Theory to Sexuality One novel approach to understanding how couples might maintain desire and satisfaction over the course of time in their relationships involves applying theories of communal motivation to the domain of sexuality. Theories of communal giving suggest that in communal relationships – such as those we have with family members, romantic partners, and close friends – people provide care non-contingently; that is, they give care to each other with little concern for what they will receive in return. In contrast, in exchange relationships, benefits are given with the expectation of direct reciprocation, with partners tracking benefits in order to keep things even (Clark &Mills, 2012; Mills & Clark, 1986). Romantic partners indicate that following communal norms (i.e., giving benefits to improve a partner’s welfare), as opposed to exchange norms (i.e., giving benefits with the expectation that similar benefits will be reciprocated), is ideal in long-term relationships as they create opportunities for couples to engage in mutually enjoyable activities that meet both partners’ needs (Clark, Lemay, Graham, Pataki, & Finkel, 2010). Although initial research has documented broad differences between communal and exchange relationships, more recent work in this area has shown that across close relationships, people vary in the extent to which they feel responsible for meeting a partner’s needs. Individual differences in the motivation to respond non-contingently to a specific partner’s needs are referred to as communal strength (Mills, Clark, Ford, & Johnson, 2004). For example, people high in communal strength are more willing to be responsive to their partner’s needs and sacrifice for the welfare of the partner and relationship (Kogan et al., 2010). People high in communal strength give to their partner insofar as the personal costs incurred in meeting their partner’s needs are reasonable, and they trust that their partner will be responsive to their own needs when they arise (Mills et al., 2004). Recently, we applied theories of communal motivation to the sexual domain of relationships. Perhaps no other relationship domain involves more dependence between partners than the domain of sexuality, given that the majority of long-term couples are monogamous and therefore cannot – or are not allowed to – get their sexual needs met outside of their current relationship. That is, partners in ongoing, committed relationships often rely on one another


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Two disparate literatures-attitudes and persuasion in social psychology with risk perceptions in health psychology and decision science are connected in an attempt to stimulate more work on characteristics and proper measurement of risk perceptions.
Abstract: Perceived risk for disease is included as a predictor of intentions and behavior in many health behavior theories. However, perceived risk is not always a strong predictor of intentions and behaviors. One reason may be suboptimal conceptualization and measurement of risk perceptions; in particular, research may not capture the conviction and certainty with which a risk perception is held. The rich and independent literature on attitudes might be leveraged to explore whether conviction is an important moderator of the effects of risk perceptions on intentions and behavior. Attitudes are more predictive of intentions when they are high in multiple aspects of attitude strength, including attitude certainty and being more accessible and stable over time. Working from the assumption that risk perceptions have a similar structure and function to attitudes, we consider whether factors known to strengthen the attitude-behavior correspondence might also strengthen the risk perception-behavior correspondence. Although by strict definition risk perceptions are not evaluations (a critical component of attitudes), the predictive validity of risk perceptions may be increased by attention to one's "conviction" or certainty of perceived risk. We also review recent strategies designed to improve risk perception measurement, including affective and experiential assessments of perceived risk and the importance of allowing people to indicate that they "don't know" their disease risk. The aim of this paper is to connect two disparate literatures-attitudes and persuasion in social psychology with risk perceptions in health psychology and decision science-in an attempt to stimulate more work on characteristics and proper measurement of risk perceptions.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors propose that cultural identity plays a central role in mitigating the psychological precursors of psychosis and that disidentification and social disconnection subsequent to migration could initiate or exacerbate psychosis for multiple generations.
Abstract: i?½ 2016 John Wiley & Sons Ltd A substantial body of literature suggests that migrants are at greater risk of developing psychotic symptoms, such as paranoia, compared to non-migrants. To date, researchers have been unable to identify the primary cause of this effect, finding scarce support for biological, diagnostic, and economic explanations. Social determinants have received little empirical attention in this domain, which we assert is a critical gap in the literature. Here, we propose that the social identity approach offers a framework to help explain the elevated rates of psychosis among migrants, and in turn inform policies and interventions to address this important mental health issue. We propose that cultural identities play a central role in mitigating the psychological precursors of psychosis and that disidentification and social disconnection subsequent to migration could initiate or exacerbate psychosis for multiple generations. We draw together research from social and clinical psychology to detail a social identity approach to psychosis in migrant populations, and make recommendations for future research.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A substantial portion of daily life is spent daydreaming, that is, engaged in thought independent of, and unrelated to, goals in the external environment as mentioned in this paper, which is a vital, but currently underappreciated, form of social cognition that enables navigation of the social world.
Abstract: A substantial portion of daily life is spent daydreaming—that is, engaged in thought independent of, and unrelated to, goals in the external environment. We argue that this naturally occurring, unconstrained cognition is a vital, but currently underappreciated, form of social cognition that enables navigation of the social world. First, we present the results of a meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies which illustrate the shared neural basis of daydreaming and social cognition (including regions of the anterior temporal lobes and the posterior cingulate cortex). Second, we review evidence regarding the frequency, correlates, and adaptive outcomes of social daydreaming, cumulative findings that point to the adaptive value of imaging others during this offline state. We end by encouraging cross-fertilization between daydreaming research and domains of social psychology (goal pursuit, social interactions, and close relationships), which we hope will foster mutually beneficial directions for understanding the role that unconstrained thinking plays in social life.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors consider the social roles of the victim and transgressor in interpersonal transgressions and argue that reconciliation is difficult and conflict is liable to be perpetuated rather than resolved.
Abstract: When interpersonal transgressions occur, the involved parties try to understand what occurred and how justice should be restored. However, research has documented that victims and transgressors often diverge in their accounts of what transpired. In this paper, I review and summarize empirical research on victims’ and transgressors’ asymmetric perceptions of interpersonal transgressions, and the different justice-restoring responses each party subsequently desires. By conceptualizing transgressions in terms of the social roles of victim and transgressor, I contend that justice responses can be thought of as attempts to correct inequitable distributions of material and symbolic resources. This social exchange perspective enables us to understand each parties’ motives and how various justice responses might satisfy them. I argue that because of these asymmetric perspectives, reconciliation is difficult and conflict is liable to be perpetuated rather than resolved.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Research is summarized that suggests socioeconomic position, depressive symptomatology, physical dependence, and gender function differently as determinants of smoking and cessation among Latinos compared with the general population of smokers.
Abstract: Tobacco is a significant burden to individual and public health, and disparities exist among Latino smokers with respect to use and cessation. Although the prevalence of smoking is lower for Latinos than for non-Latino Whites and the general U.S. population, numerous health disparities exist within the population of Latino smokers. Much is known about determinants of smoking and cessation but the vast majority of this knowledge is based on research with non-Latino White smokers. This results in at least two important challenges in tobacco research among Latino smokers: (i) demonstrating the generalizability of known determinants of smoking and cessation, and; (ii) identifying culturally relevant variables that influence smoking and cessation among Latinos. An argument for increased research in these areas is presented with a review of existing research among Latino smokers that demonstrates these needs. Research is summarized that suggests socioeconomic position, depressive symptomatology, physical dependence, and gender function differently as determinants of smoking and cessation among Latinos compared with the general population of smokers. Research is also reviewed that suggests the promise of acculturation, acculturative stress, and discrimination as culturally relevant determinants of smoking and cessation. Research and practice implications are discussed, and specific areas for future research are offered.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A growing body of research documents goal contagion, a phenomenon whereby people are likely to catch and pursue for themselves the goals they see others pursuing as mentioned in this paper, a phenomenon where people are more likely to adopt and pursue their own goals.
Abstract: A growing body of research documents goal contagion, a phenomenon whereby people are likely to catch—to adopt and pursue for themselves—the goals they see others pursuing. Here, I situate goal contagion relative to other ideas about where goals come from and then review existing scholarship on the phenomenon itself and the processes that underlie it. I then point to four larger questions that goal contagion researchers must answer in the years to come. The first two of these questions (what levels of the self-regulatory hierarchy are subject to contagion and what role goal contagion affords for consciousness and intention) delve deeper into the process of the phenomenon, while the second two (how goal contagion affects social relationships and how it plays into goal pursuit more broadly) highlight how researchers have largely ignored the question of how goal contagion might influence people's broader lives.

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TL;DR: In this article, the authors review the evidence regarding the extent to which implicit measures improve the prediction of political voting behavior beyond explicit self-report measures and conclude that implicit measures are likely to be practically relevant for predicting voting behavior only if researchers can identify new approaches.
Abstract: Implicit measures have contributed to the prediction of behavior in numerous domains including the political realm. Some theoretical arguments suggest that implicit measures are unlikely to substantially improve the prediction of political voting behavior. Other arguments are more optimistic, especially regarding the prediction of undecided voters' behavior. Here, we review the evidence regarding the extent to which implicit measures improve the prediction of political voting behavior beyond explicit self-report measures. Results reveal that implicit measures are often statistically significant predictors. However, the inclusion of an implicit measure leads to modest or even no improvement of the overall accuracy of the original prediction. We conclude that implicit measures are likely to be practically relevant for predicting voting behavior only if researchers can identify new approaches. Related findings in political psychology may pave the way as they demonstrate that implicit measures can contribute unique knowledge not accounted for in other ways.

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TL;DR: In this article, the validity of masculine discrepancy stress is discussed in terms of its predictive utility and its ability to address longstanding critiques of the Gender Role Strain Paradigm, as well as its violence prevention and intervention implications.
Abstract: Given evidence that men's and women's aggression meaningfully differ in terms of motivations, methods, and consequences, behavior scientists increasingly recognize the importance of integrating gender socialization and masculine-relevant processes into models for understanding and preventing men's violence. As such, the Gender Role Strain Paradigm, a contemporary framework for conceptualizing the psychological and physical problems common to men, has been widely utilized in aggression research. However, translation of this paradigm into effective violence prevention and intervention efforts remains stalled by controversy over measurement and methodology. After a brief review of the Gender Role Strain Paradigm and its contributions to aggression research, the current paper details recent methodological advancements in the measurement of masculine discrepancy stress/strain, a form of distress arising from perceived failures to conform to socially-prescribed masculine gender role norms. The validity of masculine discrepancy stress is described in terms of its predictive utility and its ability to address longstanding critiques of the Gender Role Strain Paradigm. Finally, masculine discrepancy stress is discussed in terms of its violence prevention and intervention implications.

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TL;DR: This article reviewed the conditions under which people are more likely to make implicit goal inferences versus implicit trait inferences, and the distinction between these two ways of understanding the behavior we observe has important consequences for how we make predictions about future behavior, set expectations for our interaction partners, and how we choose to behave.
Abstract: When people learn about or observe the behaviors of others, they tend to make implicit inferences from these behaviors (e.g., Uleman, Saribay, & Gonzalez, 2008). Such inferences are an essential part of a person's ability to understand his/her environment and to prepare appropriate behavior within that environment. In the present paper, we review the conditions under which people are more likely to make implicit goal inferences versus implicit trait inferences. The distinction between these two ways of understanding the behavior we observe has important consequences for how we make predictions about future behavior, set expectations for our interaction partners, and how we choose to behave. It can determine when we stereotype. However, until now, the literature has focused on trait inference as the dominant way perceivers make sense of their environment, with little discussion of inferences concerning a person's goals.

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TL;DR: For instance, the authors provided an overview of the research on the use of appearance-based cues in political decision-making including initial information gathered about candidates, the evaluation of candidates' potential to be effective leaders, and the decision of whether or not to support candidates in an election.
Abstract: Voters often use visual cues such as facial appearance when forming impressions of political candidates. Originally, psychological research on appearance-based politics focused on understanding whether or not these facial cues were consequential for political judgments. As this sub-field of study has expanded, the focus has shifted to understanding how and what facial cues voters utilize in their decision-making. From this perspective, inferences about political candidates are characterized by a number of interrelated appearance-based cues such as facial competence, physical attractiveness, and ingrained gender stereotypes that manifest in politicians’ appearance. Importantly, this expanded research focus now includes a broader range of evaluative judgments that are inf luenced by candidates’ facial appearance. Here, we provide an overview of the research on the use of appearance-based cues in political decision-making including initial information gathered about candidates, the evaluation of candidates’ potential to be effective leaders, and the decision of whether or not to support candidates in an election. In 1960, the first televised presidential debate demonstrated the power of visual cues to sway political judgments. Listeners of the radio broadcast of the debate thought that Richard Nixon won the debate as he spoke more confidently and persuasively about the issues. However, viewers of the televised debate believed that John F. Kennedy appeared more confident and presidential. Much of the post-debate rhetoric focused as much on style as it did on substance. The consensus was that Kennedy won, not because he debated better but because he looked better (Druckman, 2003). While the notion that appearance can overwhelm politician perception may have been surprising in 1960, such impacts are now widely recognized. In today’s era of news consumption, voters are increasingly inundated with images of political candidates. Voters see visuals of candidates from televised advertising, news coverage, social media, and candidate websites (Dimitrova & Bystrom, 2013; Druckman, Kifer, & Parkin, 2009; Grabe & Bucy, 2009; Hoegg & Lewis, 2011; Prior, 2014; Sapiro, Walsh, Strach, & Hennings, 2011). The increasing amount of campaign spending dedicated to televised advertising and developing a campaign’s online presence suggests that candidates understand the importance of controlling their visual image (Druckman et al., 2009; Sapiro et al., 2011). Indeed, such efforts are not without consequence. Including candidates’ images on ballots impacts voter turnout and electoral outcomes (Banducci, Karp, Thrasher, & Rallings, 2008; Buckley, Collins, & Reidy, 2007; Johns & Shephard, 2011). Candidate visuals can trigger emotions and convey personality characteristics that in turn inf luence how favorably we evaluate candidates (Marcus, 1988). Despite the dominance of visuals in campaign communication, the empirical study of the consequences of candidates’ visual appearance has only recently gained prominence in the scientific literature. © 2016 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Visual Political Communication A growing body of research suggests that in addition to traditional factors (i.e., political party, ideology, incumbency; Conover & Feldman, 1989; Feldman & Conover, 1983), candidate appearance serves as a heuristic or cognitive shortcut by which voters form impressions of candidates (Lau & Redlawsk, 2011; Olivola & Todorov, 2010a). Voters may not be highly informed about the political process or may be unfamiliar with candidates running for political office. Nevertheless, they are able to make social judgments about candidates based on superficial cues such as their physical appearance with remarkable cognitive efficiency. For example, perceptions of facial competence, physical attractiveness, and facial gender typicality (i.e., masculinity/femininity) provide heuristic information that voters utilize when forming judgments about candidates, evaluating candidates, and deciding which candidate to support in an election. Previous reviews of the literature on appearance-based social inferences and electoral success have shown that evaluations of candidates’ personality characteristics accurately predicted their electoral success. Facial competence, in particular, is a robust predictor of election outcomes (Hall, Goren, Chaiken, & Todorov, 2009; Olivola & Todorov, 2010a). Psychologists, political scientists, and mass communication scholars have asked how and when observers use visual cues to evaluate politicians along multiple dimensions. Here, we describe some of the exciting insights from appearance-based politics research for candidate impression formation and candidates’ electoral success. We summarize research findings that characterize appearance-based politics as consequential when individuals are gathering information about candidates, evaluating the potential of candidates to be effective leaders, and deciding whom to vote for in an electoral contest. We end by highlighting important new steps in this nascent field. Political Party Affiliation at Face Value From a mere glimpse of a politician’s photograph, perceivers can discern their political party affiliation and ideology (Bull & Hawkes, 1982; Carpinella & Johnson, 2013a; Herrmann & Shikano, 2015; Jahoda, 1954; Kawar, 1984; Olivola, Sussman, Tsetsos, Kang, & Todorov, 2012; Olivola & Todorov, 2010b; Roberts, Griffin, McOwan, & Johnston, 2011; Rule & Ambady, 2010a; Samochowiec, Wanke, & Fiedler, 2010). Participants in these studies viewed the faces of unfamiliar elected politicians, unfamiliar non-politicians, or political candidates and judged them to be either Democrat/liberal/left-wing or Republican/conservative/right-wing. Across many trials, participants were above chance levels at determining the political allegiances of those depicted. Therefore, a politician’s facial appearance compels meaningful information for social judgments. Initially, the means by which these judgments achieve accuracy was understudied (Olivola & Todorov, 2010b; Wänke & Landwehr, 2012); however, the visual cues that inform these social judgments are increasingly well documented. One of the visual cues that perceivers use to infer unfamiliar politicians’ political party affiliation is candidate attractiveness. Jahoda (1954) and Bull and Hawkes (1982) investigated the relationship between facial attractiveness and inferences about the political party affiliation of British Members of Parliament. Jahoda (1954) found that perceivers tended to think that better-looking candidates were from their own party, but Bull and Hawkes (1982) found that regardless of perceivers’ political leanings, they consistently believed that more attractive candidates were more ideologically conservative. Berggren, Jordahl, and Poutvaara (2015) also found that conservative politicians were consistently rated as more attractive. However, recent research by Hermann and Shikano (2015) found that perceivers tended to over ascribe their own ideological viewpoints to better-looking candidates, thereby supporting the original findings by Jahoda (1954). Attractiveness is one appearance-based cue that perceivers use to infer the political party affiliation of unfamiliar politicians; however, more research is warranted to further disentangle these findings. © 2016 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Social and Personality Psychology Compass (2016): 1–17, 10.1111/spc3.12249 Visual Political Communication In addition to the utilization of candidates’ attractiveness, candidates’ gender inf luences perceivers’ judgments of candidates’ political party affiliation. When asked to provide a judgment of which of the two rival candidates in U.S. political elections was the Democrat (versus Republican), study participants relied on candidates’ gender as a heuristic for their political party affiliation (Olivola et al., 2012). More specifically, when perceivers were shown images of two rival candidates in a mixed-gender election (one female candidate and one male candidate), they were more likely to render a Democrat judgment for the female candidate. Given that in the U.S. female politicians are significantly more likely to identify as Democrats, it comes as no surprise that gender is used as a heuristic for inferring candidates’ party affiliation, especially for female candidates. Another visual cue that perceivers use to infer politicians’ political party is facial gendertypicality (i.e., masculinity/femininity). Research from our lab sought to further explore which visual cues compelled accuracy in judgments of political party affiliation. Our investigation stemmed from observations that the two major U.S. political parties extol dramatically different ideals about gender roles (Lye & Waldron, 1997). Specifically, Republicans endorse traditional gender roles and advocate for femininity among women, Democrats advocate for more progressive gender roles with less gender rigidity. We tested whether party judgments were driven by the gendered appearance of politicians. Using a sample of national-level politicians, we presented participants with photographs of unfamiliar politicians and asked them to categorize their political party (i.e., Democrat or Republican). Among female politicians, those who appeared more feminine were more likely to be accurately categorized as Republicans; those who appeared less feminine were more likely to be accurately categorized as Democrats (Carpinella & Johnson, 2013a). Thus, the facial gender-typicality of female politicians compelled accuracy in party affiliation judgments with facial femininity relating to political conservatism. In addition to these general observations, perceiver ideology moderates the effect of appearance-based characteristics on judgments of politicians’ ideology. For instance, perceivers used more liberal criteria when rendering ideology judgments for out-group than for in-group members (Samochowiec et al., 2

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TL;DR: In this paper, the Disposition-Goals-Ideology (DiGI) model outlines specific interrelationships among dispositions, goals, and ideological beliefs that help to shape individual differences in political orientation.
Abstract: We review existing research on the associations between political orientation and Big Five traits such as Openness to Experience and Conscientiousness. We suggest that analyzing these traits at the aspect level sheds light on motivational mechanisms underlying these links. For example, we present evidence that only one of the two aspects of Conscientiousness (“Orderliness”) reliably predicts conservatism. To account for this relationship, and to more generally describe how traits translate into political orientation, we present a new model, the Disposition-Goals-Ideology (DiGI) Model. The DiGI model outlines specific interrelationships among dispositions, goals, and ideological beliefs that help to shape individual differences in political orientation.