Showing papers in "Social Work in 1993"

Military-Induced Family Separation: A Stress Reduction Intervention

Abstract: The Persian Gulf War focused public attention on the problems military families face in coping with military-induced family separation. This article highlights some of the unique stressors faced by active-duty, national guard, and reserve military families. Practice guidelines are presented to assist social workers in designing interventions to help these families.

Policy Practice: The Neglected Side of Social Work Intervention

Abstract: Starting from the premise that the two goals framing social work practice are self-determination and social justice, the author argues that social work has been more devoted to the implementation of the former than the latter. This article proposes that implementation of the social justice goal requires a commitment to policy practice. From a review of the literature, methods of policy practice are identified as legislative advocacy, reform through litigation, social action, and social policy analysis. Each method is analyzed in terms of its characteristics, specific social work roles, and potential effectiveness.

Empowerment and self-help agency practice for people with mental disabilities.

Abstract: During the past 15 years, there has been tremendous growth in the number of self-help groups and agencies for mental health clients. This article examines the self-help perspective in relation to problems with traditional mental health services and the need for client-run services. Self-help agencies see their goal as empowerment on an individual, organizational, and societal level. They strive to accomplish this by helping members obtain needed resources and develop coping skills; providing means of enhancing members' self-concept and lessening the stigma of perceived mental disability; giving members control in the agencies' governance, administration, and service delivery; and furthering member involvement in social policy-making. The goal of this article is not to endorse the self-help perspective but to use it as the basis for raising research questions that will further the mental health practitioner's understanding of this service modality.

Research Strategies for Consumer Empowerment of People with Severe Mental Illness

Abstract: Research concerning the care and treatment of people with severe mental illness has not been consonant with the well-established emphasis on consumer empowerment in social work and the psychiatric rehabilitation field. This article provides a set of research strategies that would help bridge the gap. We argue that research should amplify "the voice of the consumer" by attending to the context of research, the vantage point, the process of formulating research questions, the selection of interventions to be tested, the selection of outcomes and measures, and the dissemination of research results.

Perceived Problems and Service Delivery for Korean Immigrants

Abstract: Subjective experiences vary among immigrant groups adjusting to a new society. Some problems are common to all immigrants, and some are unique to certain groups. Studies of perceived problems, based on in-depth interviews with 90 Korean families in New York, were placed in the overall context of American immigrant problems to differentiate the common needs of all immigrants from the unique needs of Korean immigrants. In this article, the author studies family relations; child rearing; and practical aspects of language, employment, and health. The author discusses the development of a multiservice center for all immigrants and services specific to the Korean population. Immigration to the United States has become increasingly heterogeneous since the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 (Gordon, 1990; Jensen, 1989; Kraly, 1987). Although people are immigrating from all over the world, the largest increases are in immigrants from Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean. The 1990 census indicated that these three groups account for as much as 40 percent of the total population increase over the past decade in the United States (Barringer, 1990). The number of Korean immigrants has increased rapidly in the past few decades, from 70,000 in 1970 to 799,000 in 1992 (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1992). Despite the increases, however, understanding of the new groups lags far behind their arrival. How does each immigrant group perceive the adjustment experience, and what are the problems they face while adapting? Answers to these questions could help social workers develop and deliver effective services for immigrants. This article builds knowledge in this area through a study of Korean immigrant families. The experience of Korean immigrants, placed in the greater context of that of all American immigrants, will differentiate some common needs of immigrants from needs unique to Koreans. Suggestions are made for developing general immigrant programs and programs specific to Koreans. General Experiences of Immigrants The adaptation experience of new immigrants varies according to their place of origin, premigration occupation and education, traditional values, and socialization (Kessler-Harris & Yans-McLaughlin, 1978). The literature has stressed some common aspects of experience among the immigrants, specifically in language (Portes & Rumbaut, 1990), employment (Ware, 1932; Portes & Rumbaut, 1990), adjustment stress (Eisenstadt, 1955; Furnham & Bochner, 1989; Portes & Rumbant, 1990), and interpersonal conflict (Landau, 1982). Language Except for immigrants from English-speaking countries, the first problem an immigrant encounters is learning a new language (Chen, 1973; Homma-True, 1976; Kosmin, 1990; Land, Nishimoto, & Chau, 1988). However, place of origin and premigration experience seem to generate differences in the speed and ease of language acquisition. Those from "verbal" cultures and similar linguistic circles seem to learn a new language faster than those from "less-verbal" cultures (Finnan, 1981). Occupation determines the level of language skills that will be required. High-level professional jobs demand a higher level of command of the language, whereas low-level, unskilled jobs require a minimum level of language skills. Employment Economic survival is the foremost concern on arrival in the United States for adult immigrants (Portes & Rumbaut, 1990). Except for small numbers of religious and political immigrants, the economic motive for immigration has been constant throughout history. Immigrants are welcomed when the U.S. economy is prosperous and when labor is in short supply; when the economy falls into a recession, conflicts arise between natives and immigrants. In general, the least desirable jobs, shunned by natives, are assigned to immigrants (Portes & Rumbaut, 1990; Ware, 1932). Professional immigrants also begin at the lowest level in their occupational field, regardless of their premigration experience credentials; some face underemployment in blue-collar jobs (Howe, 1990; Shin & Change, 1988). …

Role Conflict: Cause of Burnout or Energizer?

Abstract: A year-long study of public child welfare administrators examined the effects of role conflict on their attitudes and performance. Popular belief and some of the literature have suggested that burnout is inevitable for those confronted with role conflict. Other literature has proposed that it may instead be energizing to individuals and lead to greater personal and organizational effectiveness. This qualitative study found that individuals in the study had developed specific, effective skills for responding to role conflict. Although there was a public presentation of self that indicated they were under stress and in "impossible" situations, there was in fact an energizing effect resulting from the ongoing challenge of dealing with conflict.

Transpersonal Social Work: A Theory for the 1990s

Abstract: Transpersonal psychology contains a growing body of literature and theory related to the spiritual dimension of human nature and "higher states of consciousness." This approach is especially relevant for social work practitioners who are combating the social ills of the 1990s that manifest as violence, addiction, and spiritual malaise. Other theories do not recognize higher levels of consciousness, and thus their exclusive use may inhibit the optimal development of the spiritual dimension. Transpersonal theory is the only theory that focuses on the spiritual dimension and legitimates the development of higher states of consciousness as being exceptionally healthy or as representing the epitome of human potential. The practice challenges facing social workers in the postmodern age call not only for the development of a more complex and inclusive understanding of what it means to be fully human, but also for a transpersonal theory "big" enough to allow and facilitate quantum leaps in human consciousness.

Black, Single, Working Mothers in Poverty: Preferences for Employment, Well-being, and Perceptions of Preschool-Age Children

Abstract: Poor, single, black mothers have been largely excluded from research on the impact of maternal employment. This study examined the relationship between employment preferences and well-being in a sample of 111 black, single, employed mothers with a threeor four-year-old child and low income. Two competing views of multiple role occupancy were explored, using data from structured interviews in which mothers completed a questionnaire about role strain, life satisfaction, depression, and perceptions of children. Findings revealed that mothers whose employment status was consistent with their preference were lower in role strain and higher in overall life satisfaction. Having no education beyond high school and a male child predicted significantly higher strain, greater depressive symptomatology, and the least favorable perceptions of children. Overall, results suggest that parenting boys may be especially stressful for black single mothers balancing work and family roles in poverty, particularly when low education is also a factor. Implications for policy are considered in light of the Family Support Act of 1988.

Suicide Prevention: A Classroom Presentation to Adolescents

Abstract: The increase in attention given to adolescent suicide has led to a proliferation of suicide prevention programs in schools throughout the United States. Concern is mounting over the benefits of these programs. The author, with the same concern about his own suicide prevention program, subjects his program to a statistical analysis of effectiveness. Results show that a disturbingly high proportion of adolescents had undesirable attitudes about suicide in the baseline period. The program appears to have caused a significant shift from undesirable to desirable attitudinal responses in six of eight targeted areas. In addition, the results seem to dispel a commonly held belief that associating mental illness with suicide will diminish self-disclosure. Language: en

Social Work with Gay and Lesbian Adolescents

Abstract: Gay and lesbian adolescents are a socially oppressed group discriminated against by a heterosexist and homophobic society. Because of the negative stigma society places on lesbian and gay adolescents, they face numerous difficulties that require social support and intervention. Issues pertinent to social work with lesbian and gay adolescents are examined in the context of three main social institutions: the family, the social culture, and the educational setting. Suggestions are made for improving intervention with this population, including increasing personal awareness of one's own homophobia and heterosexist bias in working with client groups; educating oneself and client groups about homosexuality; establishing positive social support programs to serve lesbian and gay adolescents; advocating for sanctions to end gay and lesbian harassment in the educational system; supporting the hiring of openly gay and lesbian teachers to serve as positive role models; and advocating for the inclusion of sexual orientation information in school sex education curricula.

Mandatory Reporting Laws: Child Protective Case Finding Gone Awry?

Abstract: Recent attacks on the child protective system have included criticism of the mandatory reporting laws to protect children from maltreatment. After a brief history of the development of the reporting laws and an evaluation of the assumptions underlying the use of these laws for case finding, this article analyzes the costs and benefits of the reporting laws for four stakeholders—the state, professionals, families, and children—and concludes that the costs of the laws outweigh the benefits. Recommended policy revisions include improved income maintenance, general social services and family-preservation programs to support families in their care of children, and narrowed definitions of child maltreatment.

Chronic Child Neglect in Perspective.

Abstract: Although the concept of chronic neglect is used in child welfare practice, studies have not differentiated chronic cases of neglect from those of more recent onset. In this study three groups of families referred to a large metropolitan county child welfare agency for child neglect are considered: those known to the agency for three years or more (chronic group), those more recently referred and substantiated (newly neglecting group), and those in which neglect was not substantiated (unconfirmed group). Significant differences among the three study groups included family size and composition, numbers and kinds of problems, neighborhood characteristics, family relationships, parenting knowledge and expectations, and mental health. Findings demonstrate the need for changes in social policy and social services delivery systems to supplement intervention with individual families.

Burnout in Gerontological Social Work

Abstract: During the past 12 years, "burnout" has become a widely used term in the social work literature. Maslach and Jackson (1981) described burnout as a state of emotional exhaustion, increased depersonalization of clients, and decreased feelings of personal accomplishment. Burnout goes beyond the negative effects it has on individual social workers; it influences social workers' organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and job retention (Jayaratne & Chess, 1984; LeCroy & Rank, 1987; Leiter & Maslach, 1988; Riggar, Godley, & Hafer, 1984). Maslach (1978) found that one-third of all human services workers had high levels of burnout (one-third had moderate levels and one-third had low levels). More recent research studies have consistently shown, however, that the rates of burnout vary considerably by field of practice. Sze and Ivker (1986) found burnout rates among social workers as high as 59.9 percent, as did Hagen (1989) in a survey of income maintenance workers. Conversely, Paine (1982) found rates well below the norm (between 5 and 15 percent), as did Beck (1987) in her national survey of family services practitioners. Only 10 percent to 20 percent of residential services workers surveyed scored high on the three components of burnout (Ursprung, 1986), whereas mental health professionals in Savicki and Cooley's (1987) study had burnout scores similar to Maslach's (1978) original study. LeCroy and Rank (1987) found that child welfare workers generally had significantly greater emotional exhaustion than did workers in family services or mental health. Jayaratne and Chess (1984), studying the same three groups, found no significant difference in workers' emotional exhaustion, although family services workers had significantly less depersonalization than did the other two groups. Although burnout has been explored in some depth, no studies have been done of burnout among gerontological social workers. However, a growing body of evidence suggests that work with elderly clients produces emotional stresses. Social work with elderly people "requires confronting loss, declining health and death" (Carrilio & Eisenberg, 1984, p. 308). Working with their clients constantly reminds gerontological social workers that someday they also may be alone, sick, and vulnerable (Carrilio & Eisenberg, 1984). Greene (1986) found that geriatric workers experienced higher levels of death anxiety than did other social workers. Predictors of Burnout A multidimensional approach to understanding the variables related to burnout focuses on organizational factors, client factors, and worker characteristics (Blostein, Eldridge, Kilty, & Richardson, 1985; Courage & Williams, 1987; LeCroy & Rank, 1987; Ursprung, 1986). Burnout has been positively correlated with multiproblem clients and caseloads with high proportions of clients with chronic and complex problems (Beck, 1987). Higher burnout rates (emotional exhaustion and depersonalization) have also been correlated with workers' negative impressions of their clients (Blostein et al., 1985; Corcoran, 1987). Studies have also found that the worker's personal characteristics are related to burnout. Golembiewski and Kim (1989) found that progressive, advancing phases of burnout were associated with decreasing self-esteem. Corcoran (1987) found that as practitioners got older and gained more experience in the human services, they experienced less emotional exhaustion and depersonalization. Himle, Jayaratne, and Chess (1987) found that male workers experienced higher levels of depersonalization than did female workers. Organizational factors are associated with burnout. Studies have found that high job stress is related to burnout (Jayaratne & Chess, 1986; Ratliff, 1988; Savicki & Cooley, 1987; Sze & Ivker, 1986). Several studies have demonstrated that workers who experience greater job autonomy and control over their jobs have lower levels of burnout than do those with less autonomy and control (Arches, 1991; Kafry & Pines, 1980; LeCroy & Rank, 1987; McCulloch & O'Brien, 1986; Viv-Vogel, 1987; Wade, Cooley, & Savicki, 1986). …

Open Adoption of Infants: Adoptive Parents' Perceptions of Advantages and Disadvantages

Abstract: As the frequency of open adoptions of infants increases, furious debate continues between those who argue that open adoption is a grave mistake and those who assert that it is a long-overdue innovation. This article defines open adoption, summarizes the open adoption controversy, and presents a qualitative descriptive study of adoptive parents' reactions to the recent open adoptions of their infants. Findings indicate overwhelmingly positive feelings about open adoption and some issues and concerns unique to the open adoption experience. The article concludes that social workers involved in adoptions should move from their traditional stance in directing and defining the birthparent-adoptive parent relationship to one that facilitates greater individualization and self-determination among the members of the adoption triad.

Reconstruing Codependency Using Self-in-Relation Theory: A Feminist Perspective

Abstract: Judging from advertisements for professional books, continuing education workshops, and speakers, social workers appear to believe that codependency is a problem about which they should be knowledgeable. This article traces the evolution of the codependency construct and its burgeoning popularity in the 1980s. It critically examines codependency from the perspective of researchers who have found little empirical support for the constellation of characteristics used to define the term and from the perspective of feminist analysis. In addition, the article analyzes the assumptions about health and relationships that are embedded in the concept of the codependency and contends, from the perspective of self-in-relation theory, that the concept does not provide a useful framework for social work conceptualization and intervention with women.

Effects of Social Support and Undermining on African American Workers' Perceptions of Coworker and Supervisor Relationships and Psychological Well-being

Abstract: Although social undermining is a commonly experienced stressor in human services workplaces, it has received little study in contemporary models of social work stress and burnout. Furthermore, African Americans currently make up nearly 25 percent of self-identified social workers in the United States, yet most literature on personnel relationships in human services does not reference this group. Data collected from a national sample of 288 African American members of the National Association of Social Workers were used to investigate the impact of undermining among coworker and supervisor-supervisee relationships. Multiple regression analyses revealed substantial increases in irritability, depression, anxiety, and depersonalization among social workers when social undermining was included in a set of predictor variables (age, gender, and social support). The presence of social support, however, did not diminish the impact of undermining. The authors discuss several practice and training implications of these findings.

Remote Practice and Culture Shock: Social Workers Moving to Isolated Northern Regions

Abstract: The social work profession has been satisfied for a long time with a relatively simplistic distraction between practice in urban and rural areas. Within the developing rural social work specialty, there is recent evidence of a challenge to expand the accepted urban-rural dichotomy by recognizing remote northern regions as unique practice settings where conventional rural practice models may be inappropriate and damaging. Very little systematic inquiry has been made into the experiences of social workers in remote northern settings. Empirical studies are rare; the sparse literature is mostly descriptive and anecdotal. One common observation from these descriptive accounts is the intense stress reported by social workers after moving to remote northern settlements. Speculation points to a poor fit between urban-based professional social work training and the realities of northern communities, yet little is known about this adjustment stress or its effects. This study examined the adjustment stress experienced by social workers who relocated to remote communities in northern Canada. Literature Review Remote Practice The 1970s witnessed renewed interest in practice issues outside of urban centers: The Encyclopedia of Social Work included its first article on rural social work (Ginsberg, 1971), the Council on Social Work Education produced a major report on rural practice (Levin, 1974), and the publication of papers from the newly established National Institute on Social Work in Rural Areas plus the launching of the journal Human Services in the Rural Environment ensured continued attention to rural practice issues. By the end of the decade, "rural social work had succeeded in gaining a place in the ranks of the profession" (Martinez-Brawley, 1981, p. 201). Since then, the knowledge base for rural social work has continued to develop with the addition of specific textbooks (Collier, 1984; Farley, Griffiths, Skidmore, & Thackery, 1982) and the treatment of rural settings included in recent general practice texts (Bloom, 1990; McMahon, 1990; Morales & Sheafor, 1989; Zastrow, 1989). Within this rural specialty several Canadian authors began to make a distinction between social work in rural agricultural settings and practice in remote northern communities (Collier, 1984; McKay, 1987; Zapf, 1985a, 1985b).The European Centre for Social Welfare Training and Research proposed a similar category of "remote" or "isolated" practice setting, calling attention to a "nuanced perception of the rural world" (Maclouf & Lion, 1984, p. 8) where isolated regions could be clearly distinguished by geography and lifestyle from rural areas more directly under the influence of urban regional centers. Along with northern Scandinavia, the European Centre identified northern Canada as a remote or isolated region (Ribes, 1985). Such categorizations suggest that important features of northern Canada may not be captured within the conventional notion of rurality. Northern Canada Most of Canada can be characterized as "wilderness," yet the label applies to less than 2 percent of the United States (outside Alaska), and the term has virtually no application in modern Europe (Stringer, 1975). It has been estimated that nine out of 10 Canadians live within 200 miles of the American border; six out of 10 live in the narrow urban corridor between Quebec City and Windsor, Ontario (Beaujot & McQuillan, 1982). In contrast, northern Canada has "only about 250 small communities scattered across a territory as large as Europe" (Hamelin, 1978, p. 68), reflecting the reality that 1 percent of the population occupies the northern 80 percent of the land mass. Northern Canada can be seen as an enormous hinterland resting above a narrow southern heartland, a vast wilderness area that stretches the conventional rural characteristic of low population density beyond relevance. With reference to the urban-rural continuum offered in the American text Rural Social Work Practice (Farley et al. …

Social Work in the Ecological Crisis

Abstract: With the advent of modern technology, human activity has altered the biosphere in ways that are harmful to living systems. As a result, human populations face a series of difficult challenges, such as economic and geographic displacement and adverse changes in health. Social work can play an important role in facilitating human adaptation to such ecological change. To do so, the profession will need to articulate values and purposes that encompass ecological concerns.

Social Dimensions of the Environmental Crisis: Challenges for Social Work

Abstract: The environmental crisis is a major public policy issue influencing prospects for global peace and human development. This article discusses the social, economic, and political components of environmental issues and their foundation in modern economic and scientific values. Native American culture, religious traditions, ecofeminism, and the ecological model of science provide alternative world views that support the goal of ecologically sustainable human social structures. The article examines implications of environmental concerns for social work practice and research. Specific examples are included to illustrate the range of linkages. Expanded use of the ecological model of social work practice is proposed as a theoretical foundation from which to develop the social work profession's response to environmental issues.

Childhood Risk Factors in Dually Diagnosed Homeless Adults

Abstract: Although the negative long-term effects of specific childhood risk factors--sexual and physical abuse, parental mental illness and substance abuse, and out-of-home placement--have been recognized, most studies have focused on just one of these risks. This article examines the prevalence of these five childhood risk factors among dually diagnosed (mentally ill and substance abusing) homeless adults in rehabilitation programs. It further assesses the impact of each risk factor individually and in combinations of two on the social functioning skills and rehabilitation progress of these multiply disadvantaged clients.

The Feminine Ethic of Care and the Professionalization of Social Work

Abstract: The tension between charitable concern and scientific professionalism has created an uneasy balance in the history of social work. This article examines the problems inherent in the social worker's self-conscious commitment to care. Feminist scholarship has recently given considerable attention to the moral development of women based on a relational model of care. This article discusses this feminine view of ethics and female social workers. The arena of caring, traditionally considered women's domain, is examined as a rational field of inquiry requiring further theoretical development.

Classification and Correlates of Ethical Dilemmas in Hospital Social Work

Abstract: The authors used categories based on the NASW Code of Ethics to code hospital social workers' descriptions of ethical dilemmas according to the specific principles in conflict. They also developed codes to identify discharge destination and medical care issues involved in the ethical dilemma. Most ethical dilemmas were found to involve conflicts between client self-determination and client best interest. Ethical dilemmas were more likely when patient mental status was impaired and when decision making was problematic. Ethical dilemmas were related to delayed discharge, in-hospital mortality, and less-than-adequate postdischarge care. The study enhances understanding of ethical dilemmas and advances a methodology for studying their occurrence and consequences.

Using Computers to Teach Practice Skills

Abstract: Over the past decade, the use of computer technology has grown in both social work practice and social work education. Symposia (Geiss & Viswanathan, 1986), conferences (LaMendola, Glastonbury, & Toole, 1989), texts (Caputo, 1988; Schoech, 1982), and even new journals (for example, Computers in Human Services and Computer Applications in Social Work) have appeared that are devoted to proselytizing and demonstrating how computers can be integrated into social work practice. There have even been several articles in social work journals that promote interactive video technology as an educational tool (Lynett, 1985; Reinoehl & Shapiro, 1986; Wodarski & Kelly, 1987). Unfortunately, few computer programs have been developed in social work that try to teach practice skills (Goldberg & Middleman, 1987; Maple, Kleinsmith, & Kleinsmith, 1991), and only a handful of programs are now beginning to appear that incorporate video technology (Carlson, Bogen, & Pettit, 1989; Maypole, 1991; Seabury & Maple, 1990). This article discusses how computers may be used in social work education to teach students practice skills and also presents two interactive videodisk (IVD) programs the authors have developed. We are strongly aware of the resistance to computer technology (Cooper, 1989; Mandell, 1989) and the doubts that many of our social work colleagues have expressed about the use of computers to teach interpersonal practice skills. Many colleagues have pointed out that a computer program simply cannot capture the complexity or the subtleties of a live interview. We agree that students' field experiences are paramount in teaching practice skills, but we also argue (based on our combined 45 years of classroom teaching) that practice skills can also be developed in role playing, simulations, and watching and discussing video and films of social work practice. We also know from more than 300 systematic student evaluations of computer programs used in introductory social work methods courses that social work students are extremely positive about these programs as learning experiences. Computer-Assisted Instructional Programs That Teach Practice Skills I-View Skills (Goldberg & Middleman, 1987) and Goal-Focused Interviewing (Maple et al., 1991) were the first two computer-assisted instructional (CAI) programs we tried in our courses. We carefully evaluated these two CAI programs to discover the students' responses to them. Over the past four years, 385 students have completed one or both of these programs, and their evaluations have been overwhelmingly positive. I-View Skills Program I-View Skills was the first CAI program we began using four years ago in the introductory interpersonal practice course. Seventy-nine students voluntarily completed this program, and their responses have been reassuringly positive. Ninety-five TABULAR DATA OMITTED percent of the students felt that I-View Skills did teach them interviewing skills, and 84 percent felt they could take these skills into practice. Only one-fifth (21 percent) of the students felt that the program was harder to complete than expected, and only 4 percent had trouble following the instructions and exercises in the program. The ease with which students completed the program may reflect their prior experience with computers. Of the 79 students, only 13 percent were first-time users, 72 percent had some prior experience with computers, and 15 percent had fairly extensive prior experience. In general, the students were overwhelmingly positive about the I-View Skills program. More than 9 out of 10 felt that this program was a positive learning experience and they would recommend it to their classmates. Most of the negative feedback we received about this program concerned specific aspects of the program's structure. For example, students wanted to be able to move backward as well as forward through the program, and some complained that the quizzes did not give them feedback about their wrong answers or explain what the correct answer was supposed to be. …

The Professional Is Political

Abstract: I understood from the teachers in those segregated schools that the work of any teacher committed to the full self realization of students was necessarily and fundamentally radical, that ideas were not neutral, that to teach in a way that liberates, that expands consciousness, that awakens, is to challenge domination at its very core. bell hooks, 1989, p. 50 For almost two decades, empowerment has been enthusiastically embraced as a highly valued goal of social work practice. Sparked by the publication of Barbara Solomon's (1976) Black Empowerment: Social Work in Oppressed Communities, "empowerment" became the primary stated objective in practice with disadvantaged and oppressed groups. The social work literature was replete with articles extolling the empowerment of clients through social work practice. In fact, empowerment has been assumed to be a part of most practice. As we have embraced this ideal, it may be that we have not really examined the dilemmas that emerge and the choices to be made when a profession adopts empowerment as a mission. It may be that empowerment exists more in our professional discourse than in actual practice. There are many forces--institutional, economic, political, ideological, and historical--that continue to be obstacles to the achievement of a truly empowering practice. The dilemmas implicit in a profession's commitment to client empowerment are not new. These dilemmas have challenged the profession, although perhaps in different words, since we attempted to separate ourselves from our early beginnings rooted in moral superiority, noblesse oblige, and social control. The profession attempted that separation by adopting the value of client self-determination, the precursor to empowerment. Self-determination was defined as clients' right to make their own choices, to define their own destiny. But for many, self-determination was a hollow promise sharply limited by lack of access to resources, to opportunity, to power. Self-determination, colored by American individualism, was too often simply the right to be left alone. "Social workers' ability to put the principle of self-determination into practice ... is affected and determined by the level of exploitation, oppression, and lack of available opportunities that clients confront" (Freedberg, 1989, p. 34). These limitations challenged social workers to turn to social action, to advocacy, and eventually to client empowerment so that inequalities could be addressed, opportunities made available, and client self-determination realized. The language of empowerment has added new dimensions to self-determination. It envisions a more vigorous, more active stance. It implies that people have not only the right to self-determination, but also the right to the power, ability, and authority to achieve self-determination. "The ability to act in behalf of oneself is a function of factors such as critical consciousness, sense of entitlement, knowledge, resources, competency, skills, and self respect" (Staples, 1990, p. 33). In the discourse on empowerment, we have primarily focused on the oppression, marginalization, deprivation, and disempowerment of clients by large social forces, by society, by "the system." We have rarely examined the power dynamics as they exist in the worker-client relationship (Pinderhughes, 1989). We have been less ready to own that we, as professionals, are part of "the system" and to examine the implications of our position of power. We have been reluctant to speculate that perhaps if our clients are to truly become empowered, we must learn to shed some power (Hoffman, 1985). Sources of Power Perhaps the average social worker, constrained by resource limitations, policies, time, knowledge, and skill deficits, does not experience herself or himself as powerful, but in the worker-client relationship, in our accustomed models of professional practice, the power belongs to us. …

Discharge Planning Revisited: What Do Social Workers Actually Do in Discharge Planning?

Abstract: The professional literature reflects a lack of clarity regarding the activities performed in discharge planning. Does discharge planning primarily focus on the provision of concrete services, counseling, or both? Within a structured interview format, 80 social workers in 36 acute care hospitals were asked to estimate the amount of time they spent on and the importance of 73 discharge planning tasks. Respondents were also asked to locate themselves on an activity continuum. The survey results are discussed in terms of the prospective payment system's emphasis on expeditious discharge and the challenge to social workers in enabling patients and families to have some control over decision making in this climate.

Reasonable Efforts for Children with Disabilities: The Parents' Perspective

Abstract: Children with disabilities present many stressful challenges for their parents, families, and the community. Representing about 12 percent of all children (Garbarino, Brookhouser, & Authier, 1987), children with disabilities are generally considered to be at high risk for out-of-home placement because (1) the high levels of stress and frustration they engender in caretakers may cause the children to be at high risk for abuse and neglect (Garbarino et al., 1987) and (2) parents sometimes are not adequately equipped to care for the special needs of the children in the home and thus place them in specialized residential facilities or foster homes. Because children with disabilities are defined and counted differently from state to state, no one knows how many are currently in the foster care system. A recent study based on 35 states estimated the average prevalence rate to be 20.5 percent of all children in placement with a range of 3 percent in Florida to 58 percent in Nevada (Hill, Hayden, Lakin, Menke, & Amado, 1990). As a result of mounting concern about the inadequacy and impermanence of foster care, Congress enacted the Adoption Assistance and Child Welfare Act of 1980, also known as Public Law 96-272 (Samantrai, 1992). This legislation incorporated and endorsed the concept of permanency planning to ensure a child's sense of continuity and the stability of family relationships (Maluccio, Fein, & Olmstead, 1986). Under the law, states must make reasonable efforts to maintain abused, neglected, and high-risk children in their families, preventing out-of-home placement if possible. Yet, little attention has been paid to defining "reasonable efforts" for children with disabilities. Reasonable efforts is not defined in the federal legislation. Federal funding requires local judges to certify that reasonable efforts have been made before a child can be placed in temporary state custody and requires states to document their reasonable efforts policies and procedures. Several working definitions of reasonable efforts have emerged, and for the most part, these definitions emphasize the need for provision of various services and procedural accountability (Alsop, 1989; Ratterman, 1987; Seaburg, 1986). None of these definitions addresses the particular issues for children with disabilities and their families. Just as social workers have acknowledged and appreciated the special needs of children with disabilities in the field of adoptions (Coyne & Brown, 1986), it is important that social workers consider their special needs in relation to efforts to prevent out-of-home placement. The purpose of this exploratory study is to help define reasonable efforts for children with disabilities by systematically obtaining data from the children's parents. Such information can generate hypotheses for subsequent research and can enrich policies and programs by incorporating the consumer-client viewpoint. Method The focus group, a qualitative methodology originated by sociologist Robert Merton and later developed by marketing researchers to test consumer preferences about new products (Morgan, 1988), was chosen. Focus groups, which have received renewed attention in the social sciences (Krueger, 1988), are structured discussion groups that use group interaction to produce data and insights that might not occur in individual interviews (Morgan, 1988). Sample As is customary with focus groups, the sample was selected using a purposive sampling plan, selecting a few groups representative of the diverse characteristics of the study population (Guba & Lincoln, 1981). Participants were recruited to represent three types of disabilities: mental and developmental disabilities, emotional disorders, and medically fragile disabilities that require life-sustaining technology support. Parents were recruited through existing state services programs and disability organizations in the Minneapolis-St. …

The Myth of Black Violence

Abstract: VioLit summary: OBJECTIVE: The goal of this article by Stark was to review misconceptions and facts about black involvement in violence. METHODOLOGY: A nonexperimental review of the literature was employed for this study. FINDINGS/DISCUSSION: It was stated that it is a common belief that blacks are more prone to violence. Substance abuse, teen pregnancy, and female-headed households were listed as factors thought to be contributing to the phenomena. Because of these beliefs, such support programs as AFDC, Medicaid, and other basic services have been frozen or cut even though most recipients do not remain dependent on them over the life course or have nontraditional family orientations. Blacks have been found to comprise more than half of those arrested for murder, rape, robbery, and aggressive assault; this applies for adults as well as juveniles. Victims of violent crimes were also more likely to be black. Between the ages of 15 and 44, black males were ten times more likely to be homicide victims than white males, and black females were five times more likely to be homicide victims than white females. 1 in 21 young black males were found to be victims of homicide by the age of 25. One picture of the black underclass focused on the increasing isolation of blacks in the inner city and the reinforcing facts of black on black violence and female-headed households. Violence-related arrests were argued to decrease the male marriage pool. In turn, there was an absence of strong male role models for children. Low self-esteem and self-hatred among black youth was another viewpoint which also argued that the absence of strong male models was devastating. Conservatives have focused on several views of so-called black dispositions ranging from biological deficiencies to pathological families. The author stated that the problem of a portrait of a violent black underclass is the fact that arrest and incarceration data are often used as the source for the argument, and these data may reflect biases in policing, court procedures (such as assignment of counsel and bail decisions), and likelihood of conviction and incarceration. Self report and victimization data have showed that the absolute number of violent whites is much higher than for blacks, and the propensity of adult black males to commit violent crimes is higher than that for white but at nowhere the rate suggested by official data. It was also stated that black people were several times more likely to be victims of homicide than any other demographic group but the likelihood for victimization by assault was not higher for black males than for white males. National Youth Survey data showed that blacks were not consistently nor significantly different than their white counterparts. The drug-violence connection was also challenged in that studies have shown that whites use more drugs, particularly harder drugs. The argument that blacks have shown more violence because of more female-headed families was challenged because of the lack of longitudinal data supporting the female head-violence connection and the increased likelihood of children from black, female-headed households being arrested. Relatedly, though teenage pregnancy has been higher for black girls than white girls, the rate for white teenage pregnancy increased four times as rapidly as for black girls in the last 30 years. Childhood poverty was said to be more explainable by low wage jobs for women than for single-headed households. The argument was made that "family breakdown" through divorce actually may reduce violence by getting women out of violent situations and, thus, decreasing the homicide victimization and offense rate for black women. The question of what accounts for the higher rates of incarceration and murder rates among black people was answered in this way: society's perception of and response to violence in the black community encourages the maintenance of a belief of blacks as violence-prone. It was argued that this results in the labeling of minor infractions as a representation of a "generic criminal type" (488). Additionally, it was said that violent crimes committed by those who do not fit the imagery are publicized in ways that reinforce racist imagery. Overresponse to black teenagers by police was also described as a culprit in disproportionate incarceration rates and a symptom of the belief in a violence prone black community. At the same time, it was claimed that this belief allows more violence among black adults to be tolerated, a point dramatically made in the treatment of domestic violence. In viewing that black violence is somehow inevitable, the criminal justice system was said to provide inadequate police protection through racial bias. In general, the myth of black propensities to violence was said to have resulted in continued discrimination in employment opportunities and low self-esteem which compounds the fight against the real violence and hopelessness that do exist on the streets. AUTHOR'S RECOMMENDATIONS: The author recommended the reduction of interpersonal assault in the black community through intermediate steps including gun control, early intervention in abusive interpersonal relationships, empowerment of female-headed households, removal of racial, sexual, and economic barriers in employment, redesign of public spaces for increased safety, and teaching of conflict resolution skills in all schools. Most of all, the author advocated the disengagement of the myth of black violence from the real threats that face the black community. (CSPV Abstract - Copyright © 1992-2007 by the Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence, Institute of Behavioral Science, Regents of the University of Colorado) African American Adult African American Juvenile African American Male African American Offender African American Violence Juvenile Violence Juvenile Offender Juvenile Male Juvenile Substance Use Adult Substance Use Adult Male Adult Offender Adult Violence Public Perceptions Perceptions About Offender Racial Stereotype Racial Factors Sociocultural Factors Socioeconomic Factors Social Class Class Factors Violence Perceptions Violence Causes Single Parent Alcohol Use Effects Drug Use Effects Substance Use Effects Juvenile Pregnancy Prejudice Family Relations Environmental Factors Offender Characteristics Violence Against Women 05-05