Showing papers in "Sociological Quarterly in 2008"
TL;DR: The authors compared results from three waves of the World Values Survey (WVS) to those of the Gallup's 24-nation "Health of the Planet" (HOP) survey conducted in 1992, as the HOP found highly inconsistent and often negative correlations between national affluence and environmental concern.
Abstract: Conventional wisdom has long held that widespread citizen concern for environmental quality is limited to wealthy nations. Both academics and policymakers assume that residents of poor nations are too preoccupied with satisfying their “material” needs to support the “postmaterialist” value of environmental protection. This view was challenged by results of Gallup's 24-nation “Health of the Planet” (HOP) survey conducted in 1992, as the HOP found highly inconsistent and often negative correlations between national affluence and environmental concern. The current article compares results from three waves of the “World Values Survey” (WVS) to those of the HOP. When appropriate measures of environmental concern are employed, the WVS results generally replicate those of the HOP, as in all three waves such concern correlates inconsistently with national affluence. The overall results suggest that citizen concern for the environment is not dependent on national affluence, nor on affluence-based postmaterialist values.
369 citations
TL;DR: It is found that national religious context, the respondent's age, and religious beliefs and practices are the most consistent predictors of the sexual morality index.
Abstract: International surveys have documented wide variation in religious beliefs and practices across nations, but does this variation in the national religious context make a difference? Building on existing theory, we explain why religion should have both micro- and macro-level effects on morality not sanctioned by the state and why the effects of religion differ from other forms of culture. Using two international surveys and hierarchical linear modeling techniques we sort out the effects of national context and personal beliefs on morality with and without legal underpinnings. We find that national religious context, the respondent's age, and religious beliefs and practices are the most consistent predictors of the sexual morality index. For morality sanctioned by the state, however, the effects for personal beliefs and practices are attenuated, and the effects of the national religious context are no longer significant.
164 citations
TL;DR: The authors examined whether religious participation enhances academic outcomes among teens by the way in which it shapes their social ties, or social capital, focusing on both intergenerational relationships and on relationships with peers.
Abstract: Previous research has observed that religious participation is positively related to a wide variety of adolescent outcomes, including academic achievement, but relatively little is known about why this is the case. We focus on a group of related potential explanations for why religious involvement improves educational outcomes. We examine whether religious participation enhances academic outcomes among teens by the way in which it shapes their social ties, or social capital, focusing on both intergenerational relationships and on relationships with peers. We also examine the potential intervening role of extracurricular participation. Using structural equation models to analyze data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), we examine the potential role of social capital and extracurricular participation in mediating the relationship between religious participation and academic achievement, dropping out of high school, and attachment to school. We find that religious attendance promotes higher intergenerational closure, friendship networks with higher educational resources and norms, and extracurricular participation. These intervening variables account for a small part of the influence of adolescent religious participation on the educational outcomes in this study.
152 citations
TL;DR: The authors identify four current genres and deconstruct their rhetoric: classical, mainstream, post-modern, and public ethnography, focusing on the differences in their epistemological, organizational, locational, and stylistic self-presentations with an eye toward better understanding how these speak to their intended audiences.
Abstract: Influenced by the new literary movement and postmodernism, in the 1990s sociologists began to reflexively examine their writings as texts, looking critically at the way they shape reality and articulate their descriptions and conceptualizations. Advancing this thread, in our presidential address we offer an overarching analysis of ethnographic writing, identifying four current genres and deconstructing their rhetoric: classical, mainstream, postmodern, and public ethnography. We focus on the differences in their epistemological, organizational, locational, and stylistic self-presentations with an eye toward better understanding how these speak to their intended audiences, both within and outside of the discipline.
110 citations
TL;DR: This article examined how images of God, as measured by God's perceived level of engagement and authority, relate to political ideology in seven Western industrial and post-industrial societies, and found that variation in image of God has no effect on whether individuals are politically liberal or conservative in five of seven countries and that the American tendency to view God as more active and authoritative affects policy attitudes in ways contrary to the effects of church attendance.
Abstract: Not only do few studies address the issue of how religious belief relates to political ideology, but little attempt has also been made to analyze this relationship from a comparative perspective. Using data from the International Social Survey Program, we examine how images of God, as measured by God's perceived level of engagement and authority, relate to political ideology in seven Western industrial and postindustrial societies. We find that variation in images of God has no effect on whether individuals are politically liberal or conservative in five of seven countries. Nonetheless, beliefs about God are strongly related to abortion and sexual morality attitudes in every country, but only sporadically related to ideas about social and economic justice. In the end, we argue that theological beliefs tend to be unrelated to a general measure of political ideology, not because religious beliefs are politically unimportant in these societies, but rather because religious perspectives are rarely fully liberal or conservative in their political orientation. In addition, we find that Americans hold unique views of God in comparison to other countries in our sample and that the American tendency to view God as more active and authoritative affects policy attitudes in ways contrary to the effects of church attendance.
76 citations
TL;DR: This article used data from a multimethod ethnography of the rave scene in Philadelphia and found that the relationship between drug use and solidarity is substantially more complicated than prior scholarship has articulated.
Abstract: Current research and theory on rave culture has articulated a link between solidarity and drug use, although the precise nature of this relationship remains unclear. Work conducted in the field of cultural studies contends that while rave participants engage in drug use, it is by no means the exclusive source of solidarity. However, work in the fields of public health and medical science portrays rave culture as a site of extensive drug consumption and personal risk, where solidarity is dismissed or dubiously acknowledged as chemically induced. Prior research has not sought to reconcile this tension, or to consider how the relationship between drug use and solidarity may have changed over time. Using data from a multimethod ethnography of the rave scene in Philadelphia, we found the drug use–solidarity relationship substantially more complicated than prior scholarship has articulated. Our discoveries, consequently, provide clarification of this relationship as well as advance the literatures on solidarity, collective identity, youth culture, and music scenes.
73 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a comparative analysis identifies similarities and differences in the patterns of community formation and political engagement of Salvadoran migrants settled across different urban centers of North America and explains variations in the territorial orientation and scales of immigrant political practice by the national and city-level contexts of immigrant reception, the institutional opportunity structure in which migrant groups are embedded, and the nature of relations between migrants and their migrant and nonmigrant institutional interlocutors in places of settlement and their country of origin.
Abstract: Greater global interconnectedness produces a transformation in the ways in which groups constitute and interpret the boundaries of community formation and political practice. This article considers the ways in which a group engages (or not) with the possibilities for transnational identity formation and border-crossing politics granted by the changing structures of the global order. A comparative analysis identifies similarities and differences in the patterns of community formation and political engagement of Salvadoran migrants settled across different urban centers of North America. Variations in the territorial orientation and scales of immigrant political practice are explained by the national and city-level contexts of immigrant reception, the institutional opportunity structure in which migrant groups are embedded, and the nature of relations between migrants and their migrant and nonmigrant institutional interlocutors in places of settlement and their country of origin.
67 citations
TL;DR: It is argued that Christian homogeneity affects sentencing practices primarily through local political processes that shape the election of judges and prosecutors, and is found that county Christian religious homogeneity increases the likelihood of incarceration.
Abstract: Religion and social control have been a sociological concern since Durkheim and Weber, and the relationship between religion and punishment has long been the subject of speculation. However, surprisingly little empirical research exists on the role of religion or religious context in criminal justice, and almost no research on the role of religious context on actual sentencing practices. We conceptualize the potential relationships between religious context and sentencing severity by drawing from the focal concerns and court community perspectives in the sentencing literature and moral communities theory developed by Rodney Stark. We suspect that Christian moral communities might shape notions of perceived blameworthiness for court community actors. Such moral communities might also affect notions of community protection - affecting perceptions of dangerousness, or perhaps rehabilitation, and might influence practical constraints/consequences (e.g., local political ramifications of harsh or lenient sentences). We examine these questions using a set of hierarchical models using sentencing data from Pennsylvania county courts and data on the religious composition of Pennsylvania counties from the Associated Religion Data Archives. We find that county Christian religious homogeneity increases the likelihood of incarceration. In addition, Christian homogeneity as well as the prevalence of civically engaged denominations in a county condition the effects of important legally relevant determinants of incarceration. Furthermore, we find evidence that Christian homogeneity activates the effect of local Republican electoral dominance on incarceration. We argue that Christian homogeneity effects sentencing practices primarily through local political processes that shape the election of judges and prosecutors.
67 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors test a hypothesis derived from an expanded theory of foreign investment dependence, which states that less-developed countries with higher levels of primary sector foreign investment exhibit higher rates of deforestation.
Abstract: This study tests a hypothesis derived from an expanded theory of foreign investment dependence. The tested hypothesis states that less-developed countries with higher levels of primary sector foreign investment exhibit greater rates of deforestation. Findings for cross-national analyses of deforestationfrom1990to2005for40less-developedcountriesconfirmthehypothesis,providing support for the proposed theorization. Additional results indicate that the presence of environmental international nongovernmental organizations is beneficial for natural forest areas, while population growth is a key driver of deforestation in less-developed countries.Besides confirming the hypothesis, this research underscores the importance for sociologists to consider both political‐economic forms of integration and human-ecological factors when investigating how humans impact the environment.
65 citations
TL;DR: The authors found that high-grouped students learn more, and low-grouping students learn less, than comparable nongrouped students in the first and third grade waves of the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Cohort.
Abstract: Separating elementary school students into skill-based reading groups within classrooms affects a vast majority of young children in the United States. The impact of this institutional process on students' learning has important implications for sociological perspectives on education and stratification, yet a lack of studies comparing similar grouped and nongrouped students has prevented scholars from drawing conclusions as to the salience of this type of curriculum differentiation. Drawing on data from the first- and third-grade waves of the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Cohort, I use propensity score matching techniques to estimate the impact of low, middle, and high group placement on reading gains relative to nongrouped instruction. Findings suggest that high-grouped students learn more, and low-grouped students learn less, than comparable nongrouped students. These analyses, which significantly lessen the extent to which selection into groups may bias results, add strong evidence to the view that within-classroom skill grouping in the early elementary years promotes unequal reading gains compared to nongrouped instruction. I conclude by discussing the theoretical and policy implications of these findings.
61 citations
TL;DR: The authors examined the educational expectations of black (African), colored (mixed race), and white (European ancestry) parents and children in Cape Town, South Africa, and found that parents' and children's expectations tend to agree more and are more closely correlated among coloreds and whites than blacks.
Abstract: South Africa, a country that is highly stratified by race, is an important location for studying the relationship between race and educational expectations. Using a longitudinal data set, we examine the educational expectations of black (African), colored (mixed race), and white (European ancestry) parents and children in Cape Town, South Africa. We find that parents and children have high educational expectations regardless of race, but black parents and children have higher educational expectations than coloreds and whites once socioeconomic and other factors are controlled. We also find that parents' and children's expectations tend to agree more and are more closely correlated among coloreds and whites than blacks. We test two explanations for the educational expectations of parents and children, finding more support for the status attainment perspective among coloreds and whites than blacks and support for the family social capital perspective among blacks and coloreds only.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors focus on research on international labor migration in Asia, a region marked by intense migration in the last four decades, and present a review covering migration research undertaken from the post-1970s to the present.
Abstract: This article focuses on research on international labor migration in Asia, a region marked by intense migration in the last four decades. The review covers migration research undertaken from the post-1970s to the present. The growing significance of international migration in the region has stimulated the production of evidence-based knowledge on Asian migration in Asia. This is indicated by the growing literature on migration-related questions, the development of research centers focused on migration, and the development of research networks in the region. Although migration research is thriving, future efforts should aim toward theory building and establishing the links between internal and international migration.
TL;DR: This article showed that female-headed households are among the most disadvantaged in the United States, while households headed by single mothers in Mexico have median median incomes that are higher than those of all other single mothers.
Abstract: An extensive amount of research has shown that female-headed households are among the most disadvantaged in the United States. By contrast, households headed by single mothers in Mexico have median...
TL;DR: The authors examined the life history of a former urban gang member who was shot and paralyzed and subsequently became a world-class wheelchair athlete, and interpreted the history in terms of the iterative, projective, and practical-evaluative agentive processes that were operative at different points in time.
Abstract: If life history research is ever to truly fulfill the promise of the sociological imagination, it will need to engage insights from agency-structure theory that have hitherto been neglected. Relatively few life history researchers have explicitly interpreted their subject matter in terms of agency-structure theory, and those who do rarely go beyond Giddens' initial formulation to incorporate more recent theoretical developments. This article attempts to fill this gap, offering an exemplar theorized life history that frames an actor's experience in terms of agency-structure theory. More specifically, I examine the life history of a former urban gang member who was shot and paralyzed and subsequently became a world-class wheelchair athlete. I interpret the life history in terms of the iterative, projective, and practical-evaluative agentive processes that were operative—sometimes simultaneously—at different points in time; and show how this individual's adaptation to disability was influenced by enabling st...
TL;DR: This article found that most respondents do not have any strong ties with coworkers; however, coworker ties are much more common than ties to neighbors, and there are gender differences in network ties and these differences may have important consequences for social support.
Abstract: The work–family literature emphasizes how work intrudes into family life, and some scholars suggest that social ties based in the workplace may be replacing ties to family or neighbors. Using data from the Ecology of Careers Panel Study, we describe the prevalence of strong ties with family, coworkers, and neighbors in a dual-earner, middle-class sample. We also examine which respondents are more likely to have strong ties in the workplace. We find that most respondents do not have any strong ties with coworkers; however, coworker ties are much more common than ties to neighbors. Additionally, there are gender differences in network ties and these differences may have important consequences for social support.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors analyzed religious trends in Taiwan after the deregulation of the late 1980s and found that state suppression contributed to the weakness of organized religion while enhancing the popularity of unchurched congregational religions in Taiwan.
Abstract: The religious economy model predicts that when encountered with competition, loosely organized religions will fail or will be transformed into congregational religions. Over time, competition will drive congregational religions to establish an extended relationship with their consumers by generating exclusivist claims and exclusivist socialization. And thus exclusive religion tends to occupy the biggest market share. This model, however, has rarely been tested empirically. By analyzing religious trends in Taiwan after the deregulation of the late 1980s, we find that state suppression contributed to the weakness of organized religion while enhancing the popularity of unchurched congregational religions in Taiwan. We also find that deregulation is associated with the rise of organized and congregational faiths. But whether or not these newly organized religions become exclusive or not needs further studies. Implications of the findings for future research are offered.
TL;DR: The authors reviewed the state of research on international migration within sub-Saharan Africa and examined the international migration systems that have emerged on the subcontinent, especially in Southern and Western Africa, as well as issues pertaining to gender and migration and to migrants' incorporation in host societies.
Abstract: This article reviews the state of research on international migration within sub-Saharan Africa. It examines the international migration systems that have emerged on the subcontinent, especially in Southern and Western Africa, as well as issues pertaining to gender and migration and to migrants' incorporation in host societies. Special attention is given to conflict-induced migration and to implications of international migration for health, with a particular emphasis on the HIV/AIDS epidemic. Despite the large volume and diversity of international migration in the subcontinent, the literature on the subject remains scarce and disconnected from the body of international migration research in other settings. The review identifies causes of this mismatch and discusses ways to mainstream the subcontinent's migration problematique.
TL;DR: In this paper, the cross-border activities of the world's transnational corporations (TNCs) are of particular interest to sociologists because of their size, power, and undemocratic nature.
Abstract: Because of their size, power, and undemocratic nature, the cross-border activities of the world's transnational corporations (TNCs) are of particular interest to sociologists. Previous research sho...
TL;DR: This paper found substantial evidence of a progressive social movement ideology centered around the extension of rights within the American public, as support for individual movements within the same social movement family is highly interrelated.
Abstract: Social movement scholars argue that movements within the same social movement family represent an ideologically coherent social force driven by an overarching master frame. Yet this claim has thus far been poorly documented. Analyzing public opinion data from a nationally representative April 2000 Gallup Poll, we find substantial evidence of a progressive social movement ideology centered around the extension of rights within the American public, as support for individual movements within this family is highly interrelated. Adherents to this progressive social movement ideology are drawn from self-identified political Liberals and Democrats, the more highly educated, women, younger, and less religious adults. We argue that public opinion research should be seen as a valuable complement to existing case-based social movement scholarship.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors use Lewis Coser's theory of greedy institutions as a way to analyze how these mechanisms influence player decisions and foster devotion to the game of chess, which is explained as a product of the following organizational elements: isolation from competing social spheres; encapsulation within a symbolic status structure; a collective feeling of elite status; trials of worthiness; and prestructured ritual.
Abstract: Based on ethnographic data, this article explains devotion to chess in terms of the structural mechanisms of its social organization. I use Lewis Coser's theory of greedy institutions as a way to analyze how these mechanisms influence player decisions and foster devotion to the game. Inspired largely by Randall Collins, I expand Coser's original framework by analyzing how the ritual of competitive play is structured in ways to heighten the intrinsic rewards of the game and further encourage commitment among the players. As such, devotion in chess is explained as a product of the following organizational elements: (1) isolation from competing social spheres; (2) encapsulation within a symbolic status structure; (3) a collective feeling of elite status; (4) trials of worthiness; and (5) prestructured ritual. After considering how these mechanisms operate in the world of chess, I discuss the potential of this expanded model of greedy institutions for future research across other social contexts.
TL;DR: In this paper, the role of occupational sorting in race and gender differences in initial salary offers was examined using data from the human resources department of a financial company, and the results showed that occupational sorting and differences in starting salary play a large role in wage gaps.
Abstract: Previous work suggests that occupational sorting and differences in starting salary play a large role in race and gender wage gaps. This study uses unique data from the human resources department of a financial company to examine the role of occupational sorting in race and gender differences in initial salary offers. While this company exhibits large race and gender differences in salary offers, controlling for occupational differences accounts for all of the race effects and reduces the gender effect to substantive insignificance. These findings underscore the importance of occupational sorting mechanisms in creating race and gender differences in wages.
TL;DR: In this article, the determinants of ethnic prejudice in Croatia were examined in the aftermath of the 1991-1995 war, and the main focus of the analysis was on how war influences the ethnic prejudice of individuals.
Abstract: This article examines what the determinants of ethnic prejudice in Croatia were in the aftermath of the 1991–1995 war. The analysis is based on a nationwide survey (N = 2,202) conducted in March and April 1996, less than a year after the cessation of war activities in Croatia. The main focus of our analysis is on how war influences the ethnic prejudice of individuals. The influences of individual war-related experiences and the effects of regional differences in the level of war activities are analyzed simultaneously by conducting a multilevel analysis. The main findings are that individual war-related experiences have little impact on prejudice, but that the contextual influence of war is somewhat stronger. Variables that are not directly related to the conflict—such as education, religiosity and size of the place of residence—have the strongest effect on prejudice. Insofar as our results can be generalized to other large-scale ethnic conflicts, they indicate that a recent history of conflict is not in i...
TL;DR: The authors analyzes research on migration in Italy since the early 1980s until the present as compared to research in other European receiving countries, focusing on second-generations, immigrants' associational and political participation, and the impact of the European Union on Italian immigration and immigrant policing.
Abstract: This article analyzes research on (im)migration in Italy since the early 1980s until the present as compared to research in other European receiving countries Two periods are singled out In the 1980s, the need to make sense of the dramatic Italian U-turn from an emigration to an immigration country prevails Since the mid-1990s, some trends toward convergence emerge, following a number of theoretical and methodological challenges arising from North American research Whereas for sociologist and anthropologist much of the debate is on social networks and transnationalism, in political science the gradual emerging of a policy approach to migration studies can be pointed out However, despite the consolidating research infrastructure, there are still open questions and gaps in contemporary research on migration in Italy, for instance, second-generations, immigrants' associational and political participation, and last but not least, the impact of the European Union on Italian immigration and immigrant polic
TL;DR: The authors argued that the scientific shortcomings of sociology are indigenous and have nothing to do with psychologism and that a more scientific sociology would look more, not less, like psychology, and that purity is undesirable in that it is not only not a scientific virtue, but is antithetical to the very scientific values that Black invokes to justify it.
Abstract: Donald Black insists that sociology must be purged of its psychological elements in order to become a genuinely distinct and scientific discipline. But such “purification” is simultaneously unnecessary, undesirable, and unattainable. It is unnecessary because the scientific shortcomings of sociology are indigenous and have nothing to do with psychologism. Indeed, a more scientific sociology would look more, not less, like psychology. Purity is undesirable in that it is not only not a scientific virtue, but is antithetical to the very scientific values that Black invokes to justify it. His systems are neither theories nor laws, but heuristics, more akin to common sense than to scientific theory. Finally, purity is unattainable because though society is indeed discontinuous with the individuals who make it up, it and all theorizing about it, are ontologically and conceptually dependent upon them.
TL;DR: The authors compared the main research agendas and methodological and theoretical approaches informing current studies of immigration and ethnicity in the United States and Europe (represented by six countries: the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Sweden).
Abstract: The article compares the main research agendas and methodological and theoretical approaches informing current studies of immigration and ethnicity in the United States and Europe (represented by six countries: the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Sweden). The European part of the report focuses on the common features of immigration and ethnic research in the countries selected for examination as compared with the American studies. In accounting for the reported similarities and differences between the two continents, I identify the contributing circumstances in the examined societies at large as well as in the characteristics of the scholarly environment in which the research in question is conducted.
TL;DR: In this paper, the philosophy of science background to the issues with Black's claims is discussed, and a discussion of Black's "theory" is presented. But, this article is concerned with the philosophy-of-science background.
Abstract: Douglas Marshall's critique of Donald Black states the essential issues with Black's “theory.” This article is concerned with the philosophy of science background to the issues with Black's claims,...
TL;DR: This paper found that higher levels of religious commitment among particular groups with a history of marginalized status in the United States and the lack of similar levels among similar groups in the British context-ethnic minorities and residents of Scotland and Wales-explain part of the gap in religious commitment between the two countries.
Abstract: Comparisons between the United States and Great Britain reveal many similarities in broad-based religious concerns and values. Nonetheless, surveys over the last 40 years document a widening gap between the two countries in individual-level religious commitment. This article suggests that the residual effect of prior marginalization of certain groups and the way they responded to the crucible of marginality is a critical variable to consider. The structure of the religious market in Great Britain kept peripheral groups from turning to religion for support or encouragement in their resistance to the establishment; this, however, was not the case in the religious economy of the United States. Using data collected in the most recent wave of the World Values Survey, I show that higher levels of religious commitment among particular groups with a history of marginalized status-namely African Americans and Southerners-in the United States and the lack of similar levels among similar groups in the British context-ethnic minorities and residents of Scotland and Wales-explain part of the gap in religious commitment between the two countries.
TL;DR: The authors compared the development of the field in the United States and Canada between 1990 and 2004 and found that the topics studied and population groups included in the sociological publications on immigration are closely associated with the demographic and immigrant integration context of the country.
Abstract: The growth and proliferation of sociological immigration research has garnered sufficient attention to warrant a review and evaluation of the development of the field. This study took the first step by collecting detailed information about work published in the area of immigration research from major journals between 1990 and 2004. We explored three major areas: research topics addressed, theoretical frameworks employed, and population groups studied in the published literature. We compared the development of the field in the United States and Canada. The studies reveal several important patterns in the sociological publications of the United States and Canada. First, the topics studied and population groups included in the sociological publications on immigration are closely associated with the demographic and immigrant integration context of the country. Second, the publications as a whole show that in the development of immigration literature, researchers in the field are engaging in the general sociological theoretical discussion.
TL;DR: For a decade beginning in the late 1940s, David Riesman, with a variety of collaborators, produced a sustained body of work on the methodology of the interview as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: For a decade beginning in the late 1940s, David Riesman, with a variety of collaborators, produced a sustained body of work on the methodology of the interview. This article looks at Riesman's writing on the interview. It explores the relationship between this work and Riesman's initial development as a sociologist, examines how he and his collaborators viewed the interview as a method, and assesses the relevance of Riesman's work to contemporary understandings of the interview as a research method.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined causes of product-line diversification in the largest 200 U.S. corporations between 1986 and 1996 and found that some corporations decreased their level of diversification, while other corporations became more diversified.
Abstract: This article examines causes of product-line diversification in the largest 200 U.S. corporations between 1986 and 1996. The analysis shows that some corporations decreased their level of diversification. However, in contrast with previous studies, other corporations became more diversified. Change in the number of first-level subsidiaries and the value of mergers and acquisitions influenced corporate diversification. In contrast with the multidivisional form, the organizational characteristics of the multilayer-subsidiary form give management greater capacity to socialize capital, pursue mergers and acquisitions, and manage a large and diversified corporation. This multilayer-subsidiary form limits the managerial problem of bounded rationality by organizing product lines and product groups in legally independent subsidiary corporations that are embedded in their respective markets.