Showing papers in "Sociology in 1968"
329 citations
305 citations
170 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a zero-sum game was used to evaluate the performance of players in the game, and the winning team was selected based on the score of the players' scores.
Abstract: В статье 1968 г. "Власть в недавних работах Толкотта Парсонса" Гидденс анализирует теоретические возможности парсоновского структурного функционализма и марксистской теории конфликта для объяснения понятия власти и принуждения в обществе. Начало открытой дискуссии Парсонса и сторонников теории конфликта положила рецензия Парсонса на работу Райта Миллса "Властвующие элиты". Парсонс назвал взгляды Миллса на власть концепцией нулевой суммы (zero-sum concept), когда власть, сосредоточенная в руках отдельной группы или партии, используется исключительно в ее интересах в ущерб интересам всех остальных групп общества. По мнению Парсонса, правильнее рассматривать власть по аналогии с игрой с ненулевой суммой (non-zero-sum game): в этом случае обе стороны, вовлеченные в ситуацию, могут извлечь для себя выгоду. Власть, по Парсонсу, может продуцироваться социальной системой подобно тому, как богатство производится предприятием или экономикой. В интерпретации Гидденса функции власти в государстве у Парсонса аналогичны функциям денег в экономической подсистеме. Власть, как и деньги, выступает циркулирующим посредником (circulating medium) в политической подсистеме. Власть представляет собой некий мандат, который дает возможность его носителям оказывать влияние на подчиненные группы в более или менее широких рамках. При этом использование власти представляет собой средство достижения целей, в которых заинтересованы обе стороны властных отношений: господствующая и подчиненная. Так же как деньги имеют ценность, поскольку являются результатом коллективного соглашения о правилах их использования, власть становится средством для достижения коллективных целей через соглашение членов общества о легитимации лидерских позиций. Легитимация обеспечивает лидеров возможностью принимать политические решения для достижения целей всей социальной системы. Продолжая исследовать взгляды Парсонса на феномен власти, Гидденс отмечает, что власть - это прямая производная авторитета (authority), который представляет собой институционализованную легитимацию, лежащую в основе власти. Авторитет определяется как институционализация прав лидеров, ожидающих поддержки членов коллектива. Парсонс отделяет власть от силы. Согласно Парсонсу, в стабильных политических системах сила обычно используется в качестве последнего аргумента только в тех ситуациях, где другие санкции оказались неэффективными. Таким образом, обладание силой само по себе не может являться достаточным критерием власти. Как полагает Гидденс, для Парсонса легитимация является важным компонентом определения власти. Другой важный, по мнению Гидденса аспект проблематики - это подчиненное поведение (compliant behaviour). Как полагает Гидденс, обычно социологи при изучении конформного, подчиненного поведения занимают одностороннюю позицию, которой Парсонсу вполне удалось избежать. В завершении статьи Гидденс проводит сравнение взглядов Парсонса на власть со взглядами неомарксистов и Р. Дарендорфа. В статье приводятся работы Парсонса "Распределение власти в американском обществе", "Концепция политической власти", "Некоторые размышления о месте силы в социальном процессе", и книга Дарендорфа "Класс и классовый конфликт в индустриальном обществе".
88 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a preliminary version of a typology for the classification of educational systems is presented, on the basis of a brief review of the literature, the educational systems of various societies are approximately and tentatively classified within the typology.
Abstract: This article presents a preliminary version of a typology for the classification of educational systems. On the basis of a brief review of the literature, the educational systems of various societies are approximately and tentatively classified within the typology. A few applications of the typology for further research are suggested.
81 citations
TL;DR: The salary man and his family in a tokyo suburb is well known book in the world, of course many people will try to own it, why don't you become the first? Still confused with the way?
Abstract: Why should wait for some days to get or receive the japans new middle class the salary man and his family in a tokyo suburb book that you order? Why should you take it if you can get the faster one? You can find the same book that you order right here. This is it the book that you can receive directly after purchasing. This japans new middle class the salary man and his family in a tokyo suburb is well known book in the world, of course many people will try to own it. Why don't you become the first? Still confused with the way?
69 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors define union democracy as the survival of a faction, which prevents union Executives from destroying the union, and describe the characteristics associated with union democracy, including political culture, government attitudes and behaviour, membership distribution, industrial setting, economic environment, technology, source of union bargaining power, membership characteristics, membership beliefs; opposition expertise and resources; leadership beliefs; and union structure.
Abstract: Two main definitions of democracy have been used in the analysis of union politics; either as leadership responsiveness to membership opinion, or as the institutionalization of opposition. This paper rejects both definitions, instead defining democracy as the survival of faction. The survival of faction is explained by the pressures which prevent union Executives from destroying it. These pressures fall into twelve categories: political culture; government attitudes and behaviour; membership distribution; industrial setting; economic environment; technology; source of union bargaining power; membership characteristics; membership beliefs; opposition expertise and resources; leadership beliefs; and union structure. The contrasting political histories of the A.E.U. and the N.U.R. are explained by contrasting patterns of constraints. The paper concludes with a formal statement of the characteristics associated with union democracy.
62 citations
TL;DR: The emergence, in the past two decades, of a separate discipline of formal organizations has been associated with the general acceptance of a Durkheimian view of organizations as ''natural systems'' as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: The emergence, in the past two decades, of a separate discipline of `Formal Organizations' has been associated with the general acceptance of a Durkheimian view of organizations as `natural systems...
TL;DR: The relationship between occupationally working class persons and the Labour Party since 1900 is considered in terms of the recruitment of political leaders, mobilization of working-class electors and the relationship between the two groups as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: The relationship between occupationally working-class persons and the Labour Party since 1900 is considered in terms of the recruitment of political leaders, mobilization of working-class electors ...
TL;DR: In this article, a study of scientists employed in industrial research organizations provides an opportunity to investigate the relative importance of individual and organizational variables in the productivity of scientists, and the degree of commitment to science by the scientists employed by the companies employed in the companies.
Abstract: An important theme in the sociology of science has been a concern with the creativity and productivity of scientists.1 On the one hand, there has been some anxiety lest the growing scale of science and the consequent tendency for research to be more highly organized may limit the freedom believed to be essential for scientific creativity.2 On the other hand, there are those who have stressed the role of the creative individual, and have explored the psychological and sociological characteristics of individual scientists, which are associated with high levels of performance.3 A third approach adopts an action frame of reference, and sees research performance as a function of the relations between the characteristics of the scientist in interaction with his research environment.4 It is this approach which will be explored in this paper.5 A recent study of scientists employed in industrial research organizations provides an opportunity to investigate the relative importance of individual and organizational variables in the productivity6 of scientists. Our sample included scientists employed in eight companies in the chemical and pharmaceutical industry. Two main variables were isolated. Firms were first classified according to the extent of scientific freedom experienced by research scientists (chemists) employed in them. Each company was scored for the percentage of scientists (i) who reported they were able either to select their own research projects or be influential in this procedure, (ii) who had more than twenty per cent of their work time made available to pursue their own research interests, (iii) who either by themselves or in close contact with their immediate supervisor were able to terminate research projects, and (iv) were engaged on basic or applied research, (assuming that there is more freedom and scope for individual creativity whilst involved in this type of work than, say, whilst engaged on service work, routine control procedures, and attending to customers' complaints about products). By this process, we were able to classify four of the companies as providing comparatively more research freedom. Our second variable was degree of commitment to science by the scientists employed in the companies. To measure this, we aggregated scores on a number of questions. For example, we sought to establish the scientists' reference group by asking, 'In whose eyes is it important for you that your work appears to be good?', and suggested that they might mention two out of eight groups of people.
TL;DR: In this article, the theory of structural balance in the context of incomplete symmetric and non-symmetric structures is introduced and the theory is placed on a probabilistic footing.
Abstract: A dynamic structure is defined as one where the number of relations in the structure is changing over time. The theory of structural balance is outlined in the context of incomplete structures, as dynamic structures are necessarily incomplete at some instant. Theorems concerning the partitioning properties of incomplete symmetric and non-symmetric structures are considered. Finally, the theory of balance is placed on a probabilistic footing.
TL;DR: In a neighbourhood populated mainly by migrants, inhabitants are politically conscious, aware of their relative poverty and have access to reform-oriented political parties, yet there is little evidence of consistent and active support for political parties of any kind as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Urban life in a low-income neighbourhood of a Latin-American city does not encourage political activity or radical political attitudes. In a neighbourhood populated mainly by migrants, inhabitants are politically conscious, aware of their relative poverty and have access to reform-orientated political parties. Yet there is little evidence of consistent and active support for political parties of any kind. This is accounted for by the absence of social cleavages in the economic and social structure of a city that has little industrialization or bureaucratization. There are no bases for political action among low-income inhabitants beyond that offered by neighbourhood problems. Residents develop individual sets of spatially extensive and socially heterogeneous relations to cope with urban life. These sets of relations and the nature of neighbourhood problems militate against united political action.
TL;DR: In this article, the theory of ''structural'' and ''pure'' measurement systems falling below the interval and ratio levels is developed systematically, and the ground-work for a forthcoming second paper on measurement and the structure of sociological theory is provided.
Abstract: The paper develops systematically the theory of `structural' and `pure' measurement systems falling below the interval and ratio levels. Pure measurement, it is argued, concerns the properties of objects and structural measurement the relationships between objects. The exposition provides the ground-work for a forthcoming second paper on measurement and the structure of sociological theory.
TL;DR: The authors found that the relationship between the head of a household and his father or father-in-law was frequently of great importance, and that the elder middle class generation channels financial aid to the next generation, which enhances the living standard of the recipients.
Abstract: The paper reports the findings of intensive research on 120 middle class families. The geographical distribution of the members of the extended family was wider, and contact between them was less frequent than among the middle class families sampled by previous authors. In these seemingly adverse conditions the middle class extended family was nevertheless a functioning social entity. The relationship between the head of a household and his father or father-in-law was found to be frequently of great importance. It is by means of this link that the elder middle class generation channels financial aid to the next generation. This aid enhances the living standard of the recipients. It is an aspect of social mobility overlooked by studies concentrating upon occupational mobility.