Showing papers in "Sport, Business and Management: An International Journal in 2018"

Women’s football studies: an integrative review

Abstract: Women’s football has received increasing attention in the academic literature, partly due to its growing popularity worldwide. However, women’s football research remains scattered across numerous academic domains. Focusing on the social sciences, humanities and management disciplines, the purpose of this paper is to map and organise contributions, and to identify research directions for future studies within these disciplines.,Using the keywords “women”, “girls”, “female” and “football” or “soccer” to initially identify articles, an integrative approach was followed to evaluate and analyse relevant literature. In all, 117 academic journals were classified and subsequently divided into 26 themes according to the subject area, topic and level examined.,Results of this integrative review show an increasing trend of journal publications since 1998, with a large representation of studies related to historical and sociological research, where qualitative methods are dominant. Articles investigating economic, managerial and marketing areas appeared in more recent times. Women’s football has been researched from different perspectives (players, fans, sport organisations) and across various countries.,The restricted scope of this review (i.e. its focus on social sciences) and the manual classification of articles represent two limitations of this study. However, the synthesis of academic literature provided may assist scholars who are interested in women’s football and women’s sports research to fill identified research gaps and contribute to further advance academic investigations in this area.,This paper provides an overview of salient research avenues and represents the first attempt to critically appraise the direction of academic contributions in women’s football for the purpose of advancing scholarly inquiry in this sport.

Building brand and fan relationships through social media

Abstract: As the popularity of social media increases, sports brands must develop specific strategies to use them to enhance fan loyalty and build brand equity. The purpose of this paper is to explore how two social media platforms were utilised by the Grand Slam tennis events to achieve branding and relationship marketing goals.,A content analytic design was employed to examine Twitter and Facebook posts from the official accounts during, and post-, each respective event.,Both sites were utilised to cultivate long-term relationships with fans and develop brand loyalty, rather than to undertake short-term marketing activations. However, these sites appear to serve a different purpose, and therefore unique strategies are required to leverage opportunities afforded by each. Interestingly, brand associations were utilised more frequently during the post-event time period.,This study offers practitioners with useful insight on branding and relationship-building strategies across two social platforms. These results suggest that strategies appear dependent on the event, timeframe and specific platform. Moreover, the events’ differences in post use and focus may also indicate some differences related to event branding in an international context. Furthermore, sport organisations should look to leverage creative strategies to overcome limitations that platform-specific functionality may impose.,This study offers unique insights brand-building efforts in an international event setting, which differ in a range of contextual factors that impact on social media utilisation.

Insights on practicing of servant leadership in the events sector

Abstract: Purpose The purpose of this paper is to understand the degree to which leaders in the events sector are perceived as servant leaders and the level of employee satisfaction, using evidence from three event types: sport events, cultural events, and personal events. Design/methodology/approach A quantitative methods approach was used to gather the data. In total, 245 surveys were completed from three different event types. Data were analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences. Findings The results revealed that servant leadership behaviors vary across event types, gender, and age groups. Similarly, extrinsic job satisfaction and intrinsic job satisfaction were different across event types, gender, and age groups. Additionally, further details have been reported in the results. Research limitations/implications The paper provides an insight on practising of servant leadership in the three different events, using evidence from the Middle East by using quantitative methods approach. While this is an appropriate method, in-depth interviews are needed to understand the mentality of the top management in the events sector in the Middle East. Originality/value It advances leadership research in the events sector that links servant leadership and employee satisfaction.

A sport-oriented place branding strategy for cities, regions and countries

Abstract: How could a city, a region or a country succeed in its attempt to use sport to (re-)define, position and promote itself? Consequently, what do jurisdictions and brand managers need to consider when using sporting events as a leverage to market themselves abroad? The paper aims to discuss these issues.,This paper draws from a combination of an extensive literature review and secondary data collection in order to build a conceptual framework, entitled the “diamond” of place branding through sport.,Managers and politicians of cities, regions and countries should espouse a holistic approach when developing their place branding strategy through sport. This holistic approach can be articulated around four dimensions: sport, economic, commercial and social.,Drawing mainly from a literature review, with the support of concrete examples, this is a first step within the confines of an exploratory research. A future study could analyze the specific cases of jurisdictions and how these fit within the conceptual framework articulated in this paper.,A place branding strategy through sport should be translated into a socio-economic legacy, with private and public benefits for the community. Ultimately, place branding through sport is one of the components of the overall place branding strategy of a jurisdiction.

Performance management of National Sports Organisations: a holistic theoretical model

Abstract: Organisational performance of sport organisations has been studied over the last three decades. However, little attention was paid towards performance management (PM) compared to performance measurement. The purpose of this paper is to close this research gap by establishing a holistic perspective for PM of National Sports Organisations (NSOs) that accounts for their uniqueness, the interdependence of their operating systems and their relationship with their environments. Furthermore, this paper presents a holistic model of PM for NSOs.,The model was developed from a literature review process and uses the macro, meso and micro framework to describe external and internal environmental influences that affect the PM of NSOs.,The NSO’s ability to respond to the dynamics of their external environment by implementing organisational processes that account for the resources available and their structural designs influences their PM. Furthermore, the ability of the individuals within NSO to create enabling environments for PM influences organisational efficiency and effectiveness.,This paper contributes to sport management literature on the PM of NSOs, and informs sport managers on ways to improve organisational performance by implementing holistic approaches to PM.,This is the first study that takes a holistic approach to PM of NSO and depicts the specific elements that play a crucial role in managing NSO’s multi-dimensional performance.

Self-leadership strategies and career success: insight on sports organizations

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to investigate the direct and indirect relationship between self-leadership strategies and career success, using self-efficacy as a mediator.,A quantitative methods approach was used to gather the data, using a sample of 418 registered individuals in sports organizations.,The results revealed that there is a significant relationship between self-leadership strategies and self-efficacy, and between self-efficacy and career success. Further, self-efficacy was found to fully mediate the relationship between the self-leadership and career success.,The paper provides an insight into the direct and indirect relationships between self-leadership and career success. In addition, this paper suggests future directions that researchers can undertake to advance self-leadership in the field of leadership research and the area of sport leadership.,Self-leadership has become an essential need today for most leadership roles in sport settings. The present study also advances self-leadership research in sport settings.

Does live broadcasting reduce stadium attendance? The case of Norwegian football

Abstract: Purpose Attendance at matches in the smaller European football leagues is challenged by the increased number of live broadcast matches, particularly covering the biggest leagues. The purpose of this paper is to analyse the effects of live broadcasting, match scheduling and other factors on stadium attendance in the top division of Norwegian football. Design/methodology/approach The analysis is based on a fixed effects regression model on attendance at match levels covering the period 2005 to 2011. Findings The main results show two different effects. While live broadcast domestic matches on “free TV” is positively correlated to stadium attendance, the increased number of “imported” matches from the big-five leagues is a substitute. Moreover, matches played on weekdays have a lower level of attendance than weekend matches. Practical implications The increased number of imported live broadcast football matches from the biggest European leagues influences and widens the financial gap between the biggest and the smaller football leagues. One possible solution for reducing the substitution effect from these matches is a more efficient match schedule in the Norwegian top division in football. Originality/value Norway has a small population with a high interest for football. This paper measures effects on attendance in the Norwegian top division in football matches with regards to the increased number of live broadcast matches both from the domestic league and from the big five football leagues.

Averting a tragedy of the commons: revenue sharing and competitive balance in the NHL

Abstract: Purpose The purpose of this paper is to measure the effect of the National Hockey League (NHL) collective bargaining agreement (CBA) of 2005 between the NHL owners and the NHL Players Association, to determine whether competitive balance in the NHL increased after the CBA. Design/methodology/approach Competitive balance in the NHL was compared between 11 seasons before the NHL Lockout Season in 2004-2005 and 11 seasons after, with a new CBA and a new revenue sharing plan. Competitive balance was measured in multiple ways, within seasons, across multiple seasons, by the margin of victory in individual games, by the concentration of teams winning and playing in the NHL championship, in the correlation of winning percentage of a season with subsequent seasons, and the number of consecutive winning or losing seasons. Findings There was greater competitive balance after the Lockout Season and the new CBA than before on all of the measures of competitive balance. The NHL has found a management solution to the effective management of a common pool resource and avoided a tragedy of the commons. Practical implications While this research builds on previous work which examines the presence of competitive balance in the NHL, it encourages those engaged in labor policy to consider not only the merit of design when negotiating labor policy, but also to explore the impact of policy on organizational outcomes over time. Originality/value This paper combines perspectives and insights from multiple disciplines including economists’ ideas about competitive balance in a sports league, ecologists’ ideas about effective management of a common pool resource, and strategic management ideas about management solutions to a sustainability problem.

Consumers’ goal-directed behavior of purchasing sportswear products online: A case study of Chinese consumers

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to explore Chinese consumers’ behavioral intention to purchase sportswear products online, by applying the model of goal-directed behavior as a research framework.,An online survey was administered to Chinese consumers (N=475) who have purchased sportswear products online in the past. Using SmartPLS 3.0 software, a partial least squares modeling analysis was conducted on the data.,When it comes to influencing the average Chinese consumer’s desire to purchase a product online, the study indicates that attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and positive anticipated emotion are significant factors. Moreover, desire and frequency of past behavior significantly influenced Chinese consumers’ intention to buy sportswear products online.,The findings of this study provide a better understanding, through the analyses of Chinese consumers’ decision-making processes, of consumer intention to purchase sportswear products online.

Types of professionalization: Understanding contemporary organizational designs of Swiss national sport federations

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to identify types of professionalization in Swiss national sport federations (NSFs) and analyze organizational characteristics associated with specific types of professionalization. Such types reveal common patterns among the increasingly complex organizational designs of NSFs and thus contribute to the understanding of professionalization in NSFs.,An online survey of all Swiss NSFs was conducted to identify types of professionalization in these organizations using hierarchical cluster analysis, based on a multi-dimensional framework of professionalization.,The analysis revealed four types of professionalization: formalized NSFs managed by paid staff, NSFs managed by volunteers and a few paid staff off the field, NSFs with differing formalization and paid staff on the field, and moderately formalized NSFs managed by volunteers. The types differ in terms of the NSFs’ organizational characteristics, in particular, size, financial resources, Olympic status, and performance.,Applying factor and cluster analysis is a new approach to analyzing professionalization in NSFs that makes uncovering distinctive organizational patterns among a large number of NSFs possible. These results lay the foundation for understanding the professionalization of NSFs, counseling NSFs on their organizational development, and conducting future research on the design types of sport organizations.

Bias against Latina and African American women job applicants: a field experiment

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to examine bias among White raters against racial minority women seeking employment in fitness organizations,The authors conducted a 2 (applicant perceived racial identity) × 2 (applicant race) × 2 (hiring directive) factorial design experiment, with participant rater gender serving as the within-subjects variable Adults in the USA (n=238) who had or were currently working in the fitness industry participated in the study,Results indicate that applicant presumed racial identity and rater gender had direct effects, while applicant presumed racial identity, applicant race and rater gender had interactive effects, as well,Results show that perceived racial identity affects raters’ view of job applicants, and the pattern of findings varies among racial groups

How to reduce turnover intention in team sports? Effect of organizational support on turnover intention of professional team sports athletes

Abstract: Purpose Turnover of employees is a key challenge for companies. The same is true for sports clubs that must set appropriate incentives to decrease their athletes’ turnover intention. As salary caps and team budgets restrict monetary incentives, the purpose of this paper is to investigate the effect of organizational support on turnover intention of professional team sports athletes. Design/methodology/approach The paper applies a combined approach of qualitative and quantitative research and considers the specific requirements of European professional team sports. First, a qualitative study investigates organizational support in team sports and identifies relevant non-monetary incentives. Second, a quantitative study tests the effects of the identified organizational support incentives on turnover intention using a unique data set of professional team sports athletes. Third, a moderation analysis measures possible effects of age. Findings Through the qualitative study, three relevant non-monetary incentives could be identified in the context of professional team sports: integration of family (IOF), second career support, and private problem support. The subsequent quantitative study of football, ice hockey and handball athletes assesses the effectiveness of the identified incentives. All three incentives negatively influence athletes’ turnover intention, while IOF has a substantially stronger negative effect on turnover intention for younger athletes. Originality/value The findings indicate the importance of organizational support to decrease athletes’ turnover intention. Although money is relevant, sports clubs also need to address non-monetary incentives to decrease their athletes’ turnover intention.

What influences organisational evolution of modern sport: the case of skateboarding

Abstract: Article published in Sport, Business and Management: An International Journal - available at https://doi.org/10.1108/SBM-10-2017-0052

Football clubs as mediators in sponsor-stakeholder relations

Abstract: Purpose Far from all, football clubs can provide the same level of exposure effects as global football brands, even on local level, and many of these clubs also operate in a context of commercial immaturity. The purpose of this paper is to show what value a football club can provide for sponsors in a context of commercial immaturity with limited expected exposure effects. Design/methodology/approach The study is based on a case study approach, taking its point of departure in two sponsor brand management paradigms, the projective and relational paradigm. The case of Malmo FF in the Swedish top tier league and the club’s official partners has been chosen to exemplify the commercially immature context. Findings The study has shown that the most important value the club can provide for sponsors is to act as a mediator in sponsor–stakeholder relations. Exposure effects are subordinate to the relational effects sponsors achieve through their sponsorship. Research limitations/implications The study indicates that the relational construct in the sponsorship literature should to a greater extent include sponsor–stakeholder relations, beyond the sponsor–club dyad, in a context of commercial immaturity. Practical implications The results indicate that club management should engage in stakeholder management with a strong focus on stakeholders of sponsors to provide value for these sponsors. Originality/value This study explores a new dimension to the relational construct of sponsorship, using the relational paradigm of brand management in a context of commercial immaturity. The mediating effect of the club is a contribution to the discourse on the relational construct.

Back to traditional stadium names: Fans’ role in financing naming rights through crowdfunding

Abstract: Purpose Despite the growing number of corporate-sponsored sport facilities, public resistance to naming rights sometimes arises. In line with other supporter-based financial instruments such as fan bonds or shares, the possibility arises that a sport club’s supporters could invest in the stadium naming rights to secure a traditional name, possibly by initiating a crowdfunding project. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the factors separating potential capital providers from non-participants and to determine which factors influence the investment decision. Design/methodology/approach The authors used an online questionnaire to evaluate respondents’ willingness to participate in a crowdfunding project. The data were analyzed by logit and probit regressions. The link was posted to selected online fan forums as well as to clubs’ fan group caretakers in Germany. In total, 708 respondents fully completed the questionnaires. Additionally, the authors provided the initial results of a proposal for a hypothetical reward-based crowdfunding project that was also part of the questionnaire. Findings The findings indicate that the most involved participants who support traditional values in sports are the most willing to participate in a crowdfunding project. Thus, crowdfunding can actually be seen as a supporter-based instrument that is an alternative to existing sport facility naming rights models. However, the analysis also indicates that the sums that can be generated through crowdfunding are limited. Originality/value Insight into a relatively new financial instrument is provided, and an alternative approach to sport facility naming rights management is offered. Ultimately, a combination of a crowdfunding project with financing by a certain number of sponsors supporting a traditional name is proposed, which may be a possible future solution that sport facility naming rights management groups can pursue.

An exploration of motives, constraints and future participation intention in sport and exercise events

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to explore relations among constraints and motivation for running events commitment along with relations among motivation and future commitment intentions.,A quantitative approach was utilized for the aim of the present study and 1,944 questionnaires were gathered. The self-determination theory and the categorization among intrinsic and extrinsic motivators as proposed by Alexandris et al. (2002) were utilized and the suggested research tools were selected for the purposes of the study.,Intrapersonal constraints found to influence motivation factors while all three motivation factors had a significant effect on continuous participation intentions.,The experimental data for the present research came from participants in a given running race. As mentioned in the discussion, the distinctive characteristics of running may have affected the examined relations in a way which might not be straightforwardly pertinent to different sports. Additional analysis in various activities is essential for the generalization of the findings.,This paper provides the context for a discussion. It shows that motivation factors (amotivation, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation) have a significant influence on individuals’ intention to participate in sport and exercise, as well as on their ability to negotiate associated constraints. The large sample is a major element of the originality of this study because adds to the validity of the results.

Toward a new (evolutionary) economics of sports.

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to propose a new classification of rules-driven sports and technology-driven sports that suggests different models of how sports develop. This paper outlines some key aspects of an evolutionary view of sports economics research and, separately, an institutional view of sports economic research.,This paper is a conceptual/theoretical piece rather than an empirical analysis of a research question. The authors scaffold a proposed analytic framework that is a combination of evolutionary economics and new institutional economics.,A new dynamic approach to the study of sports industries is called for. The authors observe that sports and sports industries exhibit dynamic qualities but in the study of sports there is no analogue of “industrial dynamics” as in economics. What is missing is the field of “evolutionary sports dynamics.” To build this, the authors frame a new evolutionary approach to the study of the sports economy and sports industries – by examining the evolution of sports, their industries, and the complex industrial ecosystems they operate in, through the lens of institutional and evolutionary economics.,The paper establishes a theoretical basis for a “New Economics of Sports” – as a shift in the types of questions that sports economics seeks to answer. These are away from “sports statics” – as a branch of applied economics of industrial organization and optimal allocation of sports resources (ala Rottenberg, 1956; Neale, 1964) – and toward concern with the economics of “sports dynamics.” The prime questions are less with the optimal organization of existing sports, and more toward understanding the origin of new sports and the evolutionary life cycles of sports.

Building a sponsor’s equity through brand personality: perceptions of fans and rivals

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to explore the role of perceived fit and brand personality as means of building the brand equity of the sponsor in a basketball sponsorship setting both for team fans (fans) and fans of a rival team (rivals).,The sponsorship deal between Microsoft (X-BOX), a global software company, and Panathinaikos BC, a popular basketball team located in Athens, Greece, was selected for this examination. Empirical data were collected through self-administered questionnaires from 222 fans and 271 rivals. Structural equation modeling was run to test the research hypotheses.,Results provided evidence that brand personality mediates the effect of fans’ perceived fit evaluations on brand equity variables. No mediation of brand personality was found for rivals, as perceived fit did not significantly affect either positively or negatively any of the brand equity variables for those study participants.,The timing of data collection, which took place a short period after the sponsorship deal was announced, the low degree of rivalry reported as well as the fact that sponsorship activation initiatives were not taken into consideration are seen as limitations of this study. Suggestions for future research that would address each of these limitations are offered.,The study contributed theoretically to sport sponsorship literature by introducing the concept of brand personality as a means to enhance sponsors’ brand equity in a basketball sponsorship setting for both team fans and rivals. Interesting managerial implications have emerged for marketing managers of both sponsors and sponsees.,This is one of the very few studies that propose a process by which sponsors can deal with rivals’ negative associations, uncovering opportunities that may exist for companies in sponsoring competing teams.

Children’s game-day experiences and effects of community groups

Abstract: Purpose Sport management research that examines children as a distinct group of sport consumers is sparse, and therefore the authors know relatively little about how and why children become fans of sport teams. The purpose of this paper is to explore the game-day experiences of children in order to better understand how these experiences allow children to socialize into the team community and become fans of the team. Design/methodology/approach The authors examine this through exploratory observational analysis and 26 semi-structured interviews with children at professional sporting events. Findings Among the results, it was found that children primarily focus on exploring ways to build membership in the fan community as opposed to initially building connections to the team itself. In addition, those children that watched the games with their peers demonstrated greater in-game emotional responses than those children that viewed the game with family. Research limitations/implications This study provides support for the importance of community membership in the initial stages of sport team fandom as well as the varying effects of different groups within fan communities on child fans. However, further research is needed to increase the generalizability of the results. Practical implications It is recommended that sport teams increasingly target groups that will bring children to games with their peers in order to enhance their game experience and increase their socialization into fandom. Originality/value This paper is one of the first in sport management to directly look to better understand children and the ways in which they become fans of sports teams.

Regulatory intensity in English and German professional football: A comparative analysis of national requirements for ensuring financial stability

Abstract: In order to secure a proper execution of sporting competitions, national governing bodies of professional football leagues apply specific regulatory procedures. In this context, special focus is placed on requirements that are supposed to ensure financial stability of clubs. They, in turn, help avoid negative economic externalities, i.e. the problem that financial difficulties from one club can affect other clubs and stakeholders due to the interdependent relationships of the competition. These regulations on a national level in European professional football leagues show several significant differences. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to comprehensively analyze financial regulatory procedures of professional football leagues to generate possible improvements of the regulations in detail. Using a document analysis of the regulation books of the English Premier League and German Bundesliga, this study compares the regulatory procedures of those important European professional football leagues. Further evaluation was performed through a qualitative content analysis to develop a category system including six categories with 72 criteria from deductive and inductive procedures. For more advanced coding an assessment scale was integrated. Compared to the Premier League, the regulation of the Bundesliga points to a more intensive regulation in all categories and across all analyzed indices. The results of both leagues partially reveal that assessment and monitoring requirements tend to be ineffective, which can substantially endanger the achievement of the whole monitoring process' aims. The intention to ensure the financial stability for securing the league competition can be missed in such a situation and negative economic externalities cannot be prevented effectively. For the first time, this study includes all relevant requirements of financial club assessment and monitoring. Thereby, an abstract comprehensive and systematic structure for professional team sports leagues is described and allows for a concrete international comparison of two European professional football leagues. At the end several approaches to improve the regulatory framework are provided.

An Empirical Exploration of Sponsorship Sales in North American Professional Sport: Is It Time to Rethink Our Approach?

Abstract: Purpose Sponsorship sales in professional sport is an area of increasing attention and growing investment, but the sport management literature offers only limited research about sales strategies and tactics. As a result, practitioners and academics alike have called for investigation in the area. In response to this need, the purpose of this paper is to empirically explore sponsorship sales in professional sport. Design/methodology/approach Sponsorship sales professionals working for sport properties in the four major North American sport leagues were surveyed on a variety of sponsorship sales-related variables and factors. Findings A total of 92 sponsorship sales professionals responded to the study, for an estimated 15.3 percent response rate. At the time of the data collection, the 92 respondents worked in the National Football League (NFL) (37), Major League Baseball (MLB) (16), National Basketball Association (NBA) (18), and National Hockey League (NHL) (21). A series of practical, conceptual, and comparative results are presented, highlighted by turnover as a problem, the importance of activation/servicing in sponsorship sales, and the high level of investment clubs are making in sponsorship sales. Research limitations/implications First, on “coverage,” the authors acknowledge that variations in the data can be linked, to a large extent, to reporting issues due to the nature of the study, the data, and the sample. Variations in sponsor number or training, for example, are not necessarily indicative of weaknesses in the industry, but occur because of strategic differences among properties. Second, it is important to note that not all properties had personnel respond to the study. Consequently, the figures presented in this study might be a function of the individual personnel who responded rather than a true average figure for a particular league. Third, in terms of the sample, this study deals with a very specific context in the four North American major sport leagues (NFL, MLB, NBA, and NHL). Thus, one should be careful in generalizing to minor professional, collegiate, Olympic, or other sport contexts. Practical implications The finding of this paper states that the turnover of sponsors may be a structural issue and is certainly related to the demand for the particular property (Seaver Marketing Group, 2010). Driven by a number of factors, including technology shifts to digital channels and increased sophistication by the sponsorship sales departments of professional sport properties, a shift in the activation and service paradigm is reported and extended to the specific context of sponsorship sales. Social implications Results show that sport properties in the North American major sport leagues have a strong commitment to sponsorship sales by the organization (commitment of resources), by sport personnel (who support the business side), and by their sponsorship sales professionals who report satisfaction, motivation, and support from their property. Originality/value To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first empirical research study specific on sponsorship sales in professional sport, thus providing direction for practice and future research on an issue of high importance to the sport industry.

Regulation by taxes or strict limits: Managing profits in american professional team sport leagues

Abstract: Purpose The purpose of this paper is to focus an empirical investigation on the financial ramifications of regulatory policies on American professional team sport leagues, while at once including the inseparable effects on the outcomes of contests. The authors conduct a comparative analysis of the impact of alternative regulatory mechanisms adopted by American professional team sport leagues, and their implications for the league performance. Design/methodology/approach The paper conducts a comparative analysis of ten years of financial and contest data from Major League Baseball (MLB) and National Hockey League (NHL). Using relative measures of payroll and profits for the two leagues, the authors test hypotheses on the impact of the market-based payroll taxes of the MLB with the strict payroll limits imposed by the NHL and their relationship to both financial and contest outcomes of the two leagues. Findings The comparison of MLB and NHL shows that market-based tax incentives are more consistent with the league financial objectives than strict, enforced mandates, suggesting that comparatively higher profits are associated with the MLB’s approach when compared to the strict bounds imposed by the NHL. Conversely, the comparison of player costs in the NHL and MLB reveal no distinguishable features based on the alternative regulatory methods. Originality/value This paper provides an initial, valuable assessment of different regulatory mechanisms on the on- and off-field (-ice) performance of MLB and NHL. Given that MLB has adopted market-based tax incentives to regulate payroll (the competitive balance tax), and the NHL has imposed strict payroll limits (hard salary cap), the authors at once consider MLB’s innovative revenue-sharing system alongside the NHL’s more conventional and restrained method of revenue redistribution, and their implications for performance.

Determinants of elite athletes’ extrinsic and intrinsic career success

Abstract: Purpose The purpose of this paper is to identify the determinants of success of elite athletes by applying the concept of career success to a sporting context The concept of career success includes extrinsic (ie tangible) career accomplishments like medals as well as intrinsic factors referring to subjective judgements about career attainments Thereby, a holistic perspective is taken which has not been studied extensively before Design/methodology/approach Based on previous literature, a theoretical model was derived outlining how human capital, motivation, organisational characteristics and socio-demographics affect both intrinsic and extrinsic career success To measure the impact of these factors, primary (n=1,249) and secondary data of elite athletes were collected Regression analyses indicated that all factors included in the theoretical model were associated with extrinsic and intrinsic success Findings Institutional support was an important driver for intrinsic career success while financial support affected extrinsic career success There was no significant influence of extrinsic career success on intrinsic career success Practical implications These findings imply that policy makers should offer enhanced dual career options, such as mentoring programmes, aspects like sport-psychological support and nutrition counselling, and long-term, stable financial support for athletes to maximise career success Originality/value This paper applies the construct of career success to sports A focus on the athletes’ intrinsic career success is placed as this area has been neglected in past research

Managing professional footballers’ finances to avoid financial problems: A Belgian survey

Abstract: Academics have studied the finances of football clubs, but not the financial situation of professional football players. To fill this gap in literature, the purpose of this paper is to analyse the financial situation of individual players, the causes of financial problems and the probability of encountering financial difficulties.,A survey has been conducted of 102 players of five clubs in the Belgian first division. Based on this unique data set, a multivariate nominal logistic regression model allows the causes of financial difficulties to be identified. A derived classification model is estimated in order to predict the probability of professional players encountering financial problems.,About one out of four professional players is confronted with occasional financial problems. Next to the use and investment of income; personal, family and career status factors have a peculiar impact on the individual financial situation of professional sports players.,The results allow better identification of professional players likely to incur financial problems and better assisting them avoid problems.,Given the gap in the sports management literature, the findings from the econometric approach provide both researchers and practitioners with new insights into financial management issues of athletes. The findings may help athletes, their managers and club managers in their decision making. Future research can further build on these findings.

Animation intensity of sponsorship signage: The impact on sport viewers’ attention and viewer confusion

Abstract: Purpose Visual animation of sponsorship signage has become a frequently used technique at televised sports with the aim to increase viewer attention The purpose of this paper is to investigate the impact of animation intensity of sponsorship signage on sport viewers’ attention and to examine viewers’ visual confusion as a reaction to increasing animation intensity Design/methodology/approach Based on a lab experiment, eye-tracking methodology was applied to analyze the participants’ visual attention to animated sponsorship signage The stimulus films showed a highlight video clip of a tennis match and included five different intensity levels of animated signage The hypothesized causal relationships were tested by using linear regression analysis and structural equation modeling Findings The results demonstrate that animation intensity of sponsorship signage positively influences sport viewers’ attention The findings also reveal that animation intensity has no significant effect on sport viewers’ visual confusion Practical implications The findings suggest the use of higher animation intensity levels for effective sponsorship communication in sports broadcasts Furthermore, there is still more potential to improve sponsorship communication at televised tennis events as viewer confusion was not affected by animation intensity Originality/value This research contributes to the body of knowledge by taking into account different intensity levels of animated sponsorship signage in a tennis event context It is the first study that demonstrates the impact of animation intensity to improve sponsorship communication at televised sporting events

A blueprint for the future of professional cycling

Abstract: Professional road cycling has the capacity to be a major worldwide spectator sport, but has yet, in the eyes of many, failed to realize its full potential. There is a growing awareness that profound reforms are crucial for the sport’s future success. The purpose of this paper is to explore the conditions which the sport must address, and define a new business model for professional road cycling.,The paper uses qualitative data to screen professional road cycling’s current business model, and to present a coherent vision on the changes needed to reform the sport. Information was gathered from archival material and from talks with stakeholders.,The paper presents a blueprint for the future of professional cycling. It identifies 6 vital building blocks and 25 specific action points, beginning with the idea that professional road cycling needs a stable business model that produces a valuable core product.,Professional road cycling is is conservative by nature and changes are extremely difficult to implement. This contribution presents a glimpse of one possible future for professional cycling, if cycling’s policy makers acknowledge the need for profound reforms of the sport and are willing to make the necessary changes.

Sport in business studies: a state-of-the-art literature review.

Abstract: Purpose The purpose of this paper is to provide a systematic review of articles on sport published in leading business studies journals within marketing, organisational studies and strategy Design/methodology/approach Based on a review of 38 identified articles within the subfields of marketing, strategy and organisation studies published between 2000 and 2015, the articles’ topical, theoretical and methodological orientation within the studied subfields were analysed followed by a cross-subfield analysis Findings The authors identify considerable differences in topical, theoretical and methodological orientation among the studied subfields’ associated articles Overall, the authors also find that articles across all subfields tend to be focussed on contributing to mature theory, even though the subfield of marketing in particular exhibits contributions to nascent theory in contrast to organisation studies and strategy Originality/value This paper contributes by illustrating the current state of research that is devoted or related to the phenomenon of sport within three subfields in business studies Furthermore, the authors discuss the role played by leading business studies journals vis-a-vis sport sector-specific journals and offer avenues for future research

I am ugly, but I am tender: the dominance of moral character and warmth

Abstract: Purpose The purpose of this paper is to investigate the dominance of athlete endorser characteristics (i.e. moral character vs warmth) on athlete endorser perception and the influence of tarnished athlete endorsers (i.e. immoral character vs coldness) on brand evaluations from the perspectives of perceiver characteristics, including dispositional tendency, innate moral intuitions, and self-location (SL). Design/methodology/approach This research consists of three experimental studies with 135, 72, and 91 participants, respectively. Study 1 compared the dominance of moral character and warmth on athlete endorser perception. Study 2 examined the impact of perceiver characteristics on the cause-and-effect relationship between tarnished athlete endorsers (i.e. immoral character vs coldness) and brand evaluations. Study 3 investigated the cross-cultural generalizability of the US-based research findings in Study 2 for Indians. Findings Moral character is more influential than warmth on athlete endorser evaluations. Tarnished athlete endorsers with immoral character exert more negative influence than tarnished athlete endorsers with coldness characteristic on brand evaluations. Except for dispositional tendency, innate moral intuitions and SL moderate brand evaluations. Endorser and perceiver characteristics yield asymmetric patterns of influence on Americans’ and Indians’ brand evaluations. Research limitations/implications Future research is needed to verify the causal effects of thinking styles on the relationship between tarnished athlete endorsers and brand evaluations. Practical implications The determination of endorsement continuity has to jointly consider the characteristics of endorsers, perceivers, and cultures. Originality/value This research contributes to the endorsement research by advancing the research scopes of athlete endorser, perceiver, and culture characteristics.

Brand Teams And Distribution Of Wealth In Brazilian State Championships

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to analyse the demand for tickets in the Brazilian State Championships focussing in the impact generated by the brand teams as well as the play-off matches in the demand for tickets and, consequently, in the match day revenues.,An equations system by three-stage least square estimator is employed. The data set comprises 1,114 matches from Mineiro, Carioca and Paulista Championships over the seasons 2013-2015.,All explanatory variables increase both attendance and match day revenues. However, the most important goal is the distribution of wealth found. The presence of brand teams in those championships provides a financial aid for smaller teams.,The proposals from the mass media to exclude the brand teams and design those championships exclusively in play-off stages should not be implemented by the policymakers. On the contrary, rearranging the design of the competition with more matches between small teams and brand teams may help to all of them.,The paper contributes to introduce the Brazilian State Championships in the sport economics literature as well as evidences the redistribution effect of wealth among clubs.