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Showing papers in "Systems Research and Behavioral Science in 1986"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present two related models of decision making by individual persons: the first model describes how nonrational mechanisms serve drastically to shrink problem space to a size enabling boundedly rational deciders to apply their limited, and highly fallible, rational/empirical strategies.
Abstract: This article concerns decision making by individual persons. Current theoretical and research challenges to classical decision theory provide the foundations for mapping the general structure of a revised theory of decision making. The main task facing the emerging theory is to make explicit provision for both nonrational and rational/ empirical sources of variance. This paper presents two related models. The first describes how nonrational mechanisms serve drastically to shrink problem space to a size enabling boundedly rational deciders to apply their limited, and highly fallible, rational/empirical strategies. The second model describes how confidence can be readily developed and maintained in fallible and invalid decisions made in typical problem domains At a metalevel of analysis the theory assumes a quasi-stable nested hierarchy, with the balance between equilibrium and stress at any given level related to the plasticity of its upper and lower boundary conditions. In the case of human systems boundary stability, within and between levels, is seen to be mainly a function of nonrational vectors (e.g., bias, confidence, fatigue, etc.), rather than cognitive vectors (e.g., information, rationality, probability, etc.). The article focuses on the individual decision maker functioning within an organizational system against the backdrop of historical and cultural constraints.

17 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the problem of the initially ignorant monopolist is chosen as one who has to adapt in pricing, capacity, and output to the observed realization of a stochastic demand process.
Abstract: The theory of economic decision-making behavior at the level of the organization is reexamined and developed, while allowing for more complex conditions than usually assumed. As an example, the problem of the initially ignorant monopolist is chosen as one who has to adapt in pricing, capacity, and output to the observed realization of a stochastic demand process. In the tradition of computer-based simulation approaches to the theory of the firm's behavior, an extended modeling procedure is proposed. The intricacies involved in the attempt to test hypotheses empirically on complex economic behavior are discussed, as well as test records obtained in laboratory experimentation with the ignorant monopolist's problem.

13 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors consider the development of a space deployment system for selection and recruitment, training and orientation of those who will live for long periods in space, as well as the support services and reentry assistance to be provided the spacefarers.
Abstract: Future space cultures may develop in living systems which could be at the level of the organization, the community, the society, or the supranational system. This article concerns all subsystem processes of such entities. For more than a quarter-century, humankind has been extending its presence successfully into outer space. The Moon landing of Apollo 11 in 1969 is changing our image of the species-we are no longer earthbound. The explorations in outer space have already begun to alter human culture on Earth, as demonstrated by the artifacts originating from space technologies. With the establishment of a more permanent presence in the higher frontier, as will happen around 1992 with the Space Station, and around 2010 with the first lunar base, humans will begin to create a new space culture as we cope with the zero-gravity environment and other aspects of living on the Moon, Mars, asteroids, and in planetary systems. To create cultural synergy in this process of human migration into space, planners should place more emphasis on the human factors involved and make greater use of the behavioral sciences, especially cultural anthropology and cross-cultural psychology, as well as a systems approach and macromanagement expertise. In our transition to a space-based culture, we should consider the development of a space deployment system for the selection and recruitment, training and orientation of those who will live for long periods in space, as well as the support services and reentry assistance to be provided the spacefarers. Systematic studies are needed on the desired characteristics to be cultivated.

13 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
Lane Tracy1
TL;DR: The concept of need applies to strains produced by stresses upon all living systems as mentioned in this paper, and it is defined as "the status of various matter-energy and information resources in accordance with the purposes of the system".
Abstract: The concept of need applies to strains produced by stresses upon all living systems. Adjustment processes are directed toward the reduction of needs. Although Miller (1978) defined needs as drives, current usage is more closely related to his concept of lack. Needs represent the status of various matter-energy and information resources in accordance with the purposes of the system. Thus, the input, output, and storage subsystems are involved. Needs are also linked by theory to the decider subsystem Current popular theories of human needs suffer from many defects that threaten to undermine other need-based theories. Need is not well defined in these theories, descriptions of specific needs and need categories are ambiguous, the origin of needs is disputed, and empirical evidence offers at best only partial support for need hierarchies. A need concept properly grounded in living systems theory would correct these and other defects. Such a concept is presented, and its implications for research, for the notion of a need hierarchy, and for other need-based theories are examined.

13 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is argued thatteleonomic entropy is transferable, that is, teleonomic entropy at a given level of a given system can affect the teleonomicropy of another system at the same level (transference), or of different levels of the same system or other systems (transformation).
Abstract: Teleonomic entropy is a measure of disorder in biopsychosocial systems. How this disorder will be distributed over parts and levels in these systems depends on the kind and strength of the corresponding interaction, which in turn is closely related to the hierarchical ordering in these multilevel systems and their purposes and goals In particular, it is argued that teleonomic entropy is transferable, that is, teleonomic entropy at a given level of a given system can affect the teleonomic entropy of another system at the same level (transference), or of different levels of the same system or other systems (transformation) The identification of purposes with the system's structure, i.e., generalized structures including dynamic ones, establishes an interdisciplinary link and provides a common language among various disciplines. The goals are related to the interaction with the environment, the system's attempts to utilize its resources.

11 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The data in this and related experiments were subjected to various forms of micro–and macroanalysis, indicating that learning curves are not monotonic, but macroanalysis at a sufficiently high level of generalization always makes them appear to bemonotonic.
Abstract: This article deals with learning processes in individual human beings. There were eight subjects. Each subject monitored needle deflections from one to six electric meters. Each meter could be controlled by a corresponding switch. The data in this and related experiments were subjected to various forms of micro–and macroanalysis. Sufficiently detailed microanalysis always indicates that learning curves are not monotonic, but macroanalysis at a sufficiently high level of generalization always makes them appear to be monotonic. Since strategies are transformed during the process of learning, the data of experimental learning curves should not be smooth because this masks interesting learning peculiarities.

10 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, an elliptic relationship between offer and response is used to derive predictions about the outcome states of bargaining systems on the basis of the bargainers' interactions. But the results suggest that the elliptic model provides a reasonable, though not perfect, explanation of bargaining outcome.
Abstract: Mathematically based dynamical systems, by producing abstract representations of phenomena that change as a function of time, provide ideal models of diverse physical, biological, and social systems. This paper focuses on bargaining and negotiation, and, as such, deals with decision making in human, dyadic group systems. In particular, bargaining is viewed as an interactive process in which the communications of one bargainer affect those of the other, and vice versa. Using concepts from the study of dynamical systems, an elliptic relationship between offer and response is postulated. This relationship is used to derive predictions about the outcome states of bargaining systems on the basis of the bargainers' interactions. The results suggest that the elliptic model provides a reasonable, though not perfect, explanation of bargaining outcome.

9 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
Peter C. Fishburn1
TL;DR: In this article, voting data from 48 elections over a four-year period was used to compare different social choice and ranking procedures, showing that most elections had a majority candidate and this candidate did not have the most first-place votes about 10 to 20% of the time.
Abstract: This article considers decision making in living systems at the levels of the organization, society, or supranational system. It examines voting data from 48 elections over a four-year period that are used to compare different social choice and ranking procedures. Each election had four to six nominees and approximately 1,000 voters. The data indicate that most elections had a majority candidate and that this candidate did not have the most first-place votes about 10 to 20% of the time. Rankings of nominees were compared for the plurality, Hare, and Australian preference procedures. With five nominees, the plurality and Hare rankings differed about 28% of the time, the plurality and Australian preference rankings differed about 55% of the time, and the Hare and Australian preference rankings differed about 62% of the time Although the data came from a very different source than data previously analyzed by Coombs, Cohen, and Chamberlin (1984), the present conclusions agree closely with theirs in areas where comparisons can be made.

8 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is concluded that the underlying mathematical model of adaptive-system behavior is supported as a valid paradigm for further theoretical research and instruction in the economics of adaptive -system decision making.
Abstract: An idealized mathematical model of adaptive-system behavior, using conventional economic decision-theory assumptions, is stated. The data-processing capacity of this model is analyzed, revealing that it would be rapidly overwhelmed by even moderate complexity. To circumvent this difficulty, a practical algorithmic approximation is developed. This, in turn, is tested by basing computer simulations of both single adaptive systems and small-group interactional systems upon it. Simulants respond to conditioning, are able to master complex sequences of decisions, are able to put ideas together to synthesize solutions to problems, interact with other simulants in a way that tends to produce interactional patterns (mini-cultures) which serve their survival, and perform in a manner deemed realistic by a wide range of simulation participants. It is thus concluded that the underlying mathematical model of adaptive-system behavior is supported as a valid paradigm for further theoretical research and instruction in the economics of adaptive-system decision making Participant interest in the simulations themselves–as evidenced by requests to participate again–and resulting measurable gains in insight into the economics of interaction–as evidenced by rapidly increasing ability to both anticipate and control the behavior of simulated others–indicate that they, too, could serve as research and instructional tools. Theoretical research applications could range from explorations of the consequences of memory size, risk taking, or analytical foresight upon the performance of individual adaptive systems, to investigations of the effects of changes in size, interactional patterns, normative or enforcement systems for social systems (such as families, friends, classrooms, work groups, military units, and so forth). Instructional applications could include practicums in decision theory and conditioning in academic settings such as economics, sociology, and psychology, and in a wide variety of applied settings such as counseling, therapy, rehabilitation, teaching, training, management, and marketing. Applied research efforts might investigate the effectiveness of simulation as a means of measuring or enhancing such skills as leadership, teaching, training, or adaptability, as discussed above.

7 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
Lena Linde1
TL;DR: The role of domain skill in information seeking by individual human beings is analyzed and it is argued that frame-organized knowledge has a constraining function on the availability of alternatives and that frames entail implicit knowledge.
Abstract: This article analyzes the role of domain skill in information seeking by individual human beings. It discusses the form and content of information in long-term memory ("knowledge"). Issues relating to acquisition and retrieval processes are surveyed. Special attention is paid to so-called feature analytic models or frame representations. It is argued that frame-organized knowledge has a constraining function on the availability of alternatives and that frames entail implicit knowledge. Lack of knowledge may have the consequence of either too many or no alternatives in short-term memory during information search A "frame-system framework" should be used as a conceptual tool for understanding cognitive processes during information seeking and decision making in computerized environments. The suggested framework is illustrated with empirical data from a psychological experiment with a textual data base.

6 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is shown that dynamic information, ordinarily ignored in normative models yet often present in biological systems, can have a profound impact on the cost-effectiveness of test use and motivate research on clinical strategies for using dynamic information.
Abstract: This paper deals with living systems at the level of the human organism, including all subsystems. It argues that, in medicine, conclusions about the adequacy of clinical heuristics, vis-a-vis normative models, may be suspect until the models are more adequately designed and the heuristics better defined. Through a theoretical analysis, it shows that dynamic information, ordinarily ignored in normative models yet often present in biological systems, can have a profound impact on the cost-effectiveness of test use. Empirically, it also shows that explicit clinical policies ignoring dynamic test patterns can lead to substantial loss in diagnostic information. These results motivate research on clinical strategies for using dynamic information. They also suggest unmet needs in evaluating tests, providing decision support, and educating physicians in cost-effective test use.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined the validity of the principle of unity of command through the mathematical model approach and formulated an organizational decision problem as the statistical decision problem in the matrix organization structure for three categories of uncertainty.
Abstract: This article deals with decision making at the level of the organization. The matrix organization, which contradicts the classical management principle of unity of command, has become the accepted term in both business and academic circles. This paper examines the validity of the principle of unity of command through the mathematical model approach. We formulate an organizational decision problem as the statistical decision problem in the matrix organization structure for three categories of "uncertainty"–certainty, risk, uncertainty–and obtain the proposition that there exists a traditional pyramid organization (strictly speaking, a line and staff organization) which is preferable to the matrix organization if the top leader is confronted with the case of certainty or risk, i.e., the principle of unity of command keeps its validity in these cases. This proposition is useful in designing an organization, and our empirical research on Japanese firms supports the proposition.


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Analyses of the strategic parts of these systems, their mutual dependencies and the processes which link them, together with their functions, have implications for both hospital-based health-care professionals and hospital administrators.
Abstract: This article concerns the application of a general systems concept to the health care system. A system consists of a set of interacting components which are interrelated and interdependent, and function as a unit. In order to identify some of the significant influences on the patient who has been hospitalized, this general systems concept has been applied to health care systems at a number of open systems levels in which he or she participates. These are the body-mind system of the patient (an organism); the patient-hospital staff system (an organization); the system relating the patient to his or her family (a group); and the patient-community system. Analyses of the strategic parts of these systems, their mutual dependencies and the processes which link them, together with their functions, have implications for both hospital-based health-care professionals and hospital administrators. These analyses are generalizable across these four levels of systems. Their implications have importance for health care services.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, several models of political stability in Ibero-america are developed and tested, and the essential variables are fiscal, military, and electoral, which are related in ways that are consistent with Ashby's findings concerning stable systems.
Abstract: This article deals with decision making in systems at the level of the society. An earlier paper published in Behavioral Science (Heggen & Cuzan, 1981) argued that government could be reduced to a firm whose behavior is consistent with the laws of microeconomics. This paper builds on that and related articles by Cuzan and Heggen. Several models of political stability in Iberoamerica are developed and tested. Their essential variables are fiscal, military, and electoral. These variables are related in ways that are consistent with Ashby's findings concerning stable systems.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The symbol system and information processing approach launched by Herbert Simon and his colleagues at Carnegie-Mellon has not yet achieved its full epistemological and methodological potential in the behavioral sciences as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: The symbol system and/or information-processing approach launched by Herbert Simon and his colleagues at Carnegie-Mellon has not yet achieved its full epistemological and methodological potential in the behavioral sciences. This paper tries to explicate the full implications of this informatic approach to behavioral science, with special emphasis on systems on the level of the organization, administration, and politics Social sciences deal with symbolic phenomena. Human thought, social interaction, administration, and politics are essentially symbol manipulations that could not be studied with rigor and precision until languages and systems were available to describe symbol processing. This approach leads to the conscious use of symbols to describe symbols, and hence to the definite possibility of studying symbols themselves as if they were objects, neither attributing existence to them, as idealist philosophy did, nor ignoring them, as positivism attempted to.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The extension process was accomplished by synthesizing concepts from many different theories in personality and social psychology into equations linking two multiple-loop feedback systems to form a suprasystem, which supports the utility of a synthetic approach to the construction of quantitative theories concerning small social systems.
Abstract: A model is presented describing decision processes of a living system at the level of the individual, together with its interpersonal relationship context (organism, subsystems, and suprasystem). The beginning point was the 1977 system dynamics model of Wegman, which was itself characterized by quantitative cross-level hypotheses concerning both physiological and psychological levels of functioning within the individual personality system The extension process was accomplished by synthesizing concepts from many different theories in personality and social psychology into equations linking two multiple-loop feedback systems to form a suprasystem. Each individual model was found to have several distinct operational modes, and the dyadic model had a number of interesting combinations of these modes which correlated with clinical descriptions of steady-state behavior and subjective experience in human marital dyads. For example, under certain conditions an individual operating in an unstable mode could achieve personal system stability within a dyadic relationship. In some cases, two unstable individuals could form a stable system The process of extending the original model supports the utility of a synthetic approach to the construction of quantitative theories concerning small social systems. This process also suggests new approaches to planning future empirical research on small social systems using methods more appropriate to the study of complex, dynamic systems.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Open systems planning as discussed by the authors is a set of concepts applicable to understanding and improving the functioning of all living systems, from the individual to the group, to the organization, and beyond.
Abstract: This article interrelates a set of concepts applicable to understanding and improving the functioning of all living systems–from the individual, to the group, to the organization, and beyond. Its central focus is upon the organization, however One of the most important and yet least understood strategies for improving individual and organizational effectiveness that has been developed during the last ten years is open systems planning. While the underlying notions of open systems planning have their roots in much ancient wisdom, there are, nevertheless, three people who deserve much credit for putting these notions together in a meaningful manner: Will Mc-Whinney, James V. Clark, and Charles Krone. The purpose of this article is to draw together a number of the most important ideas pertaining to this strategy of change in the hope that more people will appreciate its value and seek to use it The article concludes by showing how the practice of open systems planning compares and contrasts with two other popular approaches to organizational change–the conventional sociotechnical systems approach and the contingency approach–along nine separate dimensions.


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a reformulation of Vroom's classic V-I-E model concerning living purposeful systems, and extend it theoretically to represent a formal model of the "social contract" between an organization and any one of its employees.
Abstract: This paper presents a reformulation of Vroom's classic V-I-E model concerning living purposeful systems, and extends it theoretically to represent a formal model of the „social contract” between an organization and any one of its employees. The proposed modification introduces a useful distinction between „valences” and perceived utilities, and thus offers a less restrictive V-I-E model for consideration The proposed modification allows modeling the social contract in linear programming terms. This is first done from the point of view of the individual employee, and later from the perspective of the firm or organization viewed as a system of individual employees. In each case, interesting interpretations emerge from viewing the social contract as a quest for an optimization of one's goals. These interpretations are further enriched by viewing both the employee's and the organization's perspectives of the social contract through the lens of duality theory.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, human groups in an empirical comparison of Nuts and n-PD, two commons dilemma games, were addressed and the results of a repeated measures design indicated similarity in first-period choices but less cooperation in Nuts play across periods.
Abstract: Dilemmas have been modeled in many systems; the present study addressed human groups in an empirical comparison of Nuts and n-PD, two commons dilemma games. Results of a repeated measures design indicated similarity in first-period choices but less cooperation in n-PD play across periods. Results also substantiated predictions for the effect of individualistic or group-oriented instructions and for the probability of n-PD game continuation.