scispace - formally typeset
Search or ask a question

Showing papers in "Systems Research and Behavioral Science in 1989"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The literature reviewed, which focuses on living systems and cuts across the individual, small group, organization, and community levels, suggests that researchers have become more systems-oriented, and have broadened their perspectives to encompass missions' larger temporal and social contexts.
Abstract: The increasing prominence of polar, spaceflight, and subaquatic environments has renewed interest in understanding human performance under conditions of isolation and confinement. In 1987, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation co-sponsored a conference intended to revitalize behavioral research in such settings, and to explore the use of Antarctica as a behavioral laboratory for outer space. The present paper reviews recent research on men and women in isolation and confinement, with special reference to the proceedings of the NASA/NSF conference. The literature reviewed, which focuses on living systems and cuts across the individual, small group, organization, and community levels, suggests that researchers have become more systems-oriented, and have broadened their perspectives to encompass missions' larger temporal and social contexts. Among the topics reviewed are states of consciousness, stress, health, small group dynamics, personnel selection, crew training, and environmental engineering. Methodological and logistical problems are discussed, and the review concludes with recommendations for agencies that sponsor groups in isolation and confinement and for researchers who seek to study such groups.

51 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors compare two non-ranked voting methods: regular approval voting (RAV) and combined approval voting(CAV) under the assumption that each voter has two options with respect to each of the competing alternatives: cast one vote in favor or abstain, whereas under CAV he or she has three options to abstain.
Abstract: In this paper we compare two nonranked voting methods: regular approval voting (RAV) and combined approval voting (CAV). Under RAV a voter has two options with respect to each of the competing alternatives—cast one vote in favor or abstain, whereas under CAV he has three options—cast one vote in favor, abstain, or cast one vote against. Under both voting methods it is assumed that one must elect one out of three or more competing alternatives and that the alternative obtaining the largest (net) number of votes is elected. The comparison between these two voting methods shows: 1. Given that a voter is in a decisive position, he will prefer to operate under CAV than under RAV. No voter under CAV will choose to abstain with respect to any of the alternatives. 2. If all voters employ their dominant strategies the final outcome under both voting systems will be the same. 3. For any number of voters and competing alternatives, a single (nth) voter has a smaller probability of not being decisive under RAV and a larger probability of being strongly decisive under CAV. Consequently, the choice between RAV and CAV should depend on: (i) the magnitude of the difference between the expected utility a voter enjoys when he is strongly decisive and the expected disutility he suffers when he is not decisive; (ii) whether, ceteris paribus, a voter derives any psychological satisfaction from being able to vote against disapproved alternatives (CAV) instead of merely abstaining (RAV).

46 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a general-systems model stressing the inherent organizational aspects of continuous behavioral-environmental interaction is presented as a natural extension of 20th century developments in scientific worldviews.
Abstract: A general-systems model stressing the inherent organizational aspects of continuous behavioral-environmental interaction is presented as a natural extension of 20th century developments in scientific worldviews. The cultural context of scientific inquiry has often been depicted as a dynamic process which has evolved through at least three phases of philosophical orientation, or paradigmatics. Each paradigm has carried its own special implications for research strategies and tactics. Beginning with a substance-property view emphasizing self-action, scientific philosophy gradually shifted to a cause-effect orientation with emphasis on the lineal-mechanical aspects of that presumed process. Developments within this century have brought science to the integrated-field/systems view of natural phenomena, with an associated emphasis on organizational properties and dynamics. However, psychology has lagged considerably in accommodating to this latter stage of scientific philosophy, both theoretically and methodologically. The model presented identifies with modern integrated-field/systems theory and offers empirical illustrations of its implications. Emphasis is placed on practical distinctions between structural, functional, and operational analysis, with special attention to such model-specific phenomena as behavioral velocity, kinematic syntax and variability, systemic coherence, and dynamic stability versus perturbed oscillations in systemic operations. Compatibilities between the behavioral systems model and various other contemporary efforts to expand psychological paradigmatics are reviewed in conclusion.

40 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a metasystemic approach is taken to explore a metatheory with potential to develop into a paradigm for the Information Systems (IS) discipline, where sources of knowledge, the object of study, representative metaphors, activities, methodologies, and purposes of the schools of thought which constitute the discipline are reviewed and discussed in an effort to define the paradigm.
Abstract: The Information Systems (IS) discipline lacks a paradigm to guide its work. A metasystemic approach is taken to explore a metatheory with potential to develop into a paradigm for the discipline. Sources of knowledge, the object of study, representative metaphors, activities, methodologies, and purposes of the schools of thought which constitute the discipline are reviewed and discussed in an effort to define the paradigm.

36 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the independence axiom of Savage (1954) is systematically violated by subjects in an Allais Paradox type of choice situation, and it is concluded that the fault is not in utility theory but rather in the ability of research subjects to analyze complex probability problems without assistance, and that framing of the problem heavily influences choices.
Abstract: The issue we want to resolve is whether or not the independence axiom of Savage (1954) is systematically violated by subjects in an Allais Paradox type of choice situation. The results of an experiment involving the Allais Paradox is presented. As with all Allais Paradox experiments the subjects were presented with choices involving hypothetical outcomes. It is concluded that the fault is not in utility theory but rather in the ability of research subjects to analyze complex probability problems without assistance, and that the framing of the problem heavily influences choices. Just as we are susceptible to optical illusions we are also susceptible to mental illusions. One can obtain a wide range of outcomes using the Allais Paradox depending on how the choices are framed.

16 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors consider the challenge of cross-level interactions within multilevel analytical models and illustrate the importance of examining such interactions by expanding upon previous research involving a social interaction variable, peer group interaction (PGI).
Abstract: This study considers the challenge of cross-level interactions within multilevel analytical models. It illustrates the importance of examining such interactions by expanding upon previous research involving a social interaction variable, peer group interaction (PGI). Results indicate the presence of a cross-level interaction between individualand aggregate-level PGI for individual job performance. Implications of this finding are discussed in terms of both the organizational context in which it occurred and multilevel research generally.

15 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A matrix combining levels of uncertainty and amounts of available information is proposed, which suggests high uncertainty and low information may be appropriate for a dialectical inquiry method of presenting information.
Abstract: An appropriate method for presenting information to the decision maker should depend on the situation. Rather than discuss well-structured, semi-structured, and unstructured situations, this paper proposes a matrix combining levels of uncertainty and amounts of available information. Based on combinations of these two factors, various methods of presenting information are recommended. High information, low uncertainty lends itself to mathematical formulae, procedures, and management information systems (MIS). Low uncertainty and low information seems to benefit from decision support systems (DSS). High uncertainty and high information may benefit from expert systems and a devil's advocate element. Finally, high uncertainty and low information may be appropriate for a dialectical inquiry method of presenting information.

15 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Before space settlements become a reality, the author makes a case for the broadening of the engineering approach to human factor studies, and consideration of the integrative living systems theory in space planning and management.
Abstract: In anticipation of longer missions on the space stations, Mir and Freedom, as well as a potential return to the Moon and the exploration of Mars, human survival and the quality of life aloft will be increasingly dependent upon research in the behavioral and biological sciences. This article reviews the possible contributions to space habitation of the behavioral sciences--especially anthropology, psychology, and sociology. Before space settlements become a reality, the author makes a case for the broadening of the engineering approach to human factor studies, and consideration of the integrative living systems theory in space planning and management.

9 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is shown that expert systems are not necessarily more expensive or less accurate than linear models and that, in theory at least, they can perform many tasks that are beyond the scope of linear models.
Abstract: This article deals with decision subsystems at the level of the organism. In recent years there has been debate as to whether linear models or clinical expert systems make clinical decisions more effectively. Previous articles in this journal have favored linear models. This article argues the opposite case. We show that expert systems are not necessarily more expensive or less accurate than linear models and that, in theory at least, they can perform many tasks that are beyond the scope of linear models. Indeed, while a linear model may serve as a subsystem of a human or computer expert system, an expert system cannot be seen as a subsystem of a linear model. We conclude that clinical expert systems and linear models are not interchangeable and users should not be forced to choose between them.

8 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
Joseph Germana1
TL;DR: The biological significance of behavioral learning is that, as such a system process, it promotes the development of organization in the transactional relationships standing between organism and environment, the two major participants in the life process.
Abstract: When found in the company of adaptation, maturation, evolution, and all other processes which promote change and development of biological organization, the “natural beauty” of learning is revealed in all of its forms. But, the biological significance of behavioral learning is that, as such a system process, it promotes the development of organization in the transactional relationships standing between organism and environment, the two major participants in the life process.

7 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the relationship among uncertainty, complexity, information, and success can be stated in a quantitative manner, and the authors translate this quantitative statement into a number of hypotheses which are empirically tested using data collected among insurance agents.
Abstract: Every system (whether it be a self-directed missile, a predator, a man, or an organization) needs a model with sufficient information to accomplish its purpose and be viable. The quantity of required information is determined by the uncertainty and the complexity of the environment in which the system operates and the level of success which is necessary for the system to be deemed as viable. The relationship among uncertainty, complexity, information, and success can be stated in a quantitative manner. This investigation translates this quantitative statement into a number of hypotheses which are empirically tested using data collected among insurance agents. The hypotheses apply to living systems at the level of individuals, groups, organizations, and societies.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors prove that a "nice" and "unexploitable" strategy is the best one to adopt in asymmetric contests in which there is only one group of invaders.
Abstract: The evolution of cooperative behavior under conflict situations (Prisoner's Dilemma game) is an unresolved problem of crucial importance for biological and social sciences. Axelrod's (1980a, 1980b, 1981a, 1981b, 1984) influential (e.g., Maynard Smith, 1982; Peck & Feldman, 1985; Boyd & Lorberbaum, 1987; Milinski, 1987) results showing that cooperation is likely to evolve in groups which play repeated Prisoner's Dilemma game are based in their deductive part on the concept of collective/evolutionary stability. However, there is no pure strategy which is evolutionarily stable (Boyd & Lorberbaum, 1987; Swistak, 1987). This leaves us with no deductive argument in favor of any particular strategy (e.g., TIT FOR TAT) which, in consequence, seriously flaws the reasoning behind the emergence of cooperation. In this paper we prove that a “nice” and “unexploitable” strategy is the best one to adopt in asymmetric contests in which there is only one group of invaders. Populations adopting such strategies can resist invasion by any group of invaders which is smaller or equal in size. Being more likely to survive, these populations will facilitate the emergence of cooperation.

Journal ArticleDOI
M. Joseph Sirgy1
TL;DR: The central postulate of the proposed theory is that each organizational task is a function of all other organizational tasks; hence, the systemic nature of organization.
Abstract: This paper develops a conceptual foundation for building a theory of organization. Organization is construed to involve a hierarchy of decisions and controls. Within each hierarchical level of the organization, six organizational tasks are defined. These are (1) objectives, (2) strategy, (3) feedforward, (4) feedback, (5) coordination, and (6) resource allocation. The central postulate of the proposed theory is that each organizational task is a function of all other organizational tasks; hence, the systemic nature of organization.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A statistical procedure that can be used to conduct cross-level and multilevel research in organizations is described, a derivation of the General Linear Model, and allows the researcher to align the focal unit and the level of analysis.
Abstract: Studies of business and social organizations tend to focus on a single organizational level such as the individual or the department. However, the interdependence of the various levels in organizations must be reflected in both theory and methodology if a more complete understanding of these structures is to be achieved. This paper describes a statistical procedure that can be used to conduct cross-level and multilevel research in organizations. This procedure is a derivation of the General Linear Model, and allows the researcher to align the focal unit and the level of analysis. Two applications of this technique are provided. The first shows how the technique can be used to help formulate theory. The second uses this procedure to test a hypothesis derived from existing theory.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Unconscious inhibitory processes, triggered by a potential anxiety reaction, are reviewed in the context of an emerging rapprochement between psychodynamic and cognitive approaches in experimental psychology.
Abstract: Unconscious inhibitory processes, triggered by a potential anxiety reaction, are reviewed in the context of an emerging rapprochement between psychodynamic and cognitive approaches in experimental psychology. Conditions underlying spread of inhibitory action to other cognitive networks are first explored in three tachistoscopic experiments utilizing words posthypnotically tied to a potential anxiety, pleasure, or neutral reaction. Response times of subjects, instructed to ignore those words while naming pictures or solving anagrams as quickly as possible, reveal a highly differentiated pattern of circumstances governing likelihood of inhibitory spread from anxiety-linked words to target stimuli. Next a computer model is constructed to simulate cognitive processes from onset of display to eventual response, and the model is then tested for its fit to the empirical data. Finally, an illustrative study shows that a subset of computer-generated predictions for spread of inhibitory action is verifiable experimentally.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: McLeod has been involved with simulation for nearly 40 years, and has served as an Associate Editor of this journal since 1973; he is truly a pioneer in the field as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: EDITOR'S NOTE: John McLeod has been involved with simulation for nearly 40 years, and has served as an Associate Editor of this journal since 1973; he is truly a pioneer in the field. His time on our Board of Editors has covered important years in the relatively short history of computer simulation. In 1952 he founded the first Simulation Council which, by stages, has metamorphosed into the current Society for Computer Simulation International. He is the author of three books in the field, Editor Emeritus of the Society's journal Simulation and, with his wife Suzette, continues to publish “Simulation in the Service of Society”, a monthly contribution to that journal. That and related activities keep him active in his chosen field. The following is based on a talk given at a meeting of the La Jolla Systems Research Group.


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Information-Processing-Systems (IPS) as mentioned in this paper is a triad of information processing, meaning, and manipulation associated with symbolic systems. And it can be found in many disciplines, including abstract, artificial, and natural systems.
Abstract: This essay intends to show that equivalents to the triad INFORMATION-SYSTEM-PROCESSING can be found in many disciplines. It also intends to explain how this triad can account for all symbolic phenomena. After presenting the triad, the first part introduces the informatic approach: (1) background on INFORMATION SYSTEMS; (2) basic features of structure, meaning, and manipulation associated with SYSTEM PROCESSING; (3) the triadic equivalence, through notation change, explaining INFORMATION-PROCESSING-SYSTEMS (IPS). The second part presents the IPS triad in cross-level research concerning abstract, artificial, and natural systems. Finally, a few reflections are drawn about the universality of systematization and the particularity of its roles in different disciplines. Chronology This article has an unusual history. It begins with the first author's “Informatic Philosophy of Behavioral Sciences,” published in the journal (Frischknecht, 1986, 31, 162-172), written in Argentina. The essay sparked the second author's strong critique, from California: “Misapplication of the Metasystem Concept” (van Gigch, 1987a, 32, 232-233). Behavioral Science invited the Argentine professor to hold a dialog with his American colleague. The tough reply was “Positivist Bias Misses the Symbol System Point” (Frischknecht, 1987, 32, 234-237). By unbelievable chance, both authors met in Buenos Aires. By intellectual necessity they checked ideas and discussed a first draft for this paper. By coauthorship transitivity, the exchange of papers and comments involved the French Professor Jean-Louis Le Moigne (van Gigch and Le Moigne, 1989, 34, 128-147). Now the dialog has become a trialog. By nonlinear recursion, this modest episode might start a fractal of unpredictable complexity. This article is still far from that goal: it is just one state in the never-ending process of systematizing knowledge about symbol systems. Readers are asked to participate in this dialectic research endeavor converging, it is hoped, toward a better understanding of human disciplines and behavior.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a parsimonious simulation model of such product life cycles is presented which explains why some of the typical patterns of sales over time occur, and how the model can be used by researchers to provide a deeper understanding of this life cycle concept.
Abstract: A variety of disciplines are interested in modeling the adoption and repeat use of products and services. In the discipline of marketing the idea that many products have a life cycle where unit sales follow the path: introduction, growth, maturity, and decline is widespread. A parsimonious simulation model of such product life cycles is presented which explains why some of the typical patterns of sales over time occur. We then show how the model can be used by researchers to provide a deeper understanding of this life cycle concept.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, regret theory is used to explain both the paradox and one type of preference reversal, where one prefers an alternative that is subsequently proved to be inferior (but the decision maker may still prefer the inferior alternative).
Abstract: This paper deals with a paradox. Tversky and Kahneman have presented the distinction between transparent and nontransparent dominance. Thaler has expanded their concept to present a paradox of choice where one prefers an alternative that is subsequently proved to be inferior (but the decision maker may still prefer the inferior alternative). Regret theory is used to explain both the paradox and one type of preference reversal.



Journal ArticleDOI
Chih-yu Shih1
TL;DR: In this paper, the search for identity at the individual and the international levels is discussed. And the implications of two kinds of national role conceptions to conflict resolution are discussed, and the cognitive approach is applied to East Asia to illustrate its analytical utility.
Abstract: Some social psychology literature has suggested that social organization exists in time, not in space. Organization as a living system would not evolve over time, however, unless a meaningful identity had been given to it by interacting members. This view of social organization can be applied to organizations at all levels. This article deals with the search for identity at the individual and the international levels. International organization can be seen as processes of seeking common cause-maps by interacting national leaders. The function of organization is to develop a consistent, self-binding, and shared interpretation of world events by the interacting national representatives serving as information ingestors, distributors, and receivers. This organizational process would congeal the evolution of a supranational living system if congruence among various national role conceptions were to be greatly enhanced through negotiation. The paper discusses the implications of two kinds of national role conceptions to conflict resolution. At the end, the cognitive approach is applied to East Asia to illustrate its analytical utility.

Journal ArticleDOI
Hiroshi Tanaka1
TL;DR: In this paper, it is argued that it is B's essential data that A must manipulate in order to get B to do what A wants B to, and it is shown that the condition for the stable equilibrium is related to the law of comparative advantage.
Abstract: Most authors have accepted the notion that A has power over B to the extent that A can get B to do what he wants B to do. However, they should have asked themselves, “How can A do so? What is it that A must manipulate in doing so?” This paper argues that it is B's essential data that A must manipulate, and presents a formulation of the interaction between A and B following this line of thought. It is also shown that the condition for the stable equilibrium is related to the law of “comparative advantage.” Some of the important concepts in international politics, such as hegemony and balance of power, are explained in the same way.

Journal ArticleDOI
S. Rush1
TL;DR: A model and computer simulation of a cat-like animal in a “natural” environment that emphasizes evolutionary principles in which behavior is motivated and shaped by survival criteria but varies with age and experience as the model animal matures from a condition of having just been weaned, to adulthood.
Abstract: This paper describes a model and computer simulation of a cat-like animal in a “natural” environment. The model emphasizes evolutionary principles in which behavior is motivated and shaped by survival criteria but varies with age and experience as the model animal matures from a condition of having just been weaned, to adulthood. The behavior has both random and cognitive components and, although realized in an electro-mechanical device, demonstrates 15 well-defined and experimentally validated psychological behaviors of human and other animals, interacting in harmony to produce a set of movements that can be seen to foster survival and procreation. While there is only a restricted set of terrain features included due to practical considerations, the behavior will adapt equally well for any reasonable placement and shape of those features. The same program offers an indefinite number of trial experiments since each choice of random number seed will give rise to an unpredictable “fate” for the subject of that experiment. In addition, the experimenter can conveniently vary many parameters of the model, thereby adding to its generality and potential utility. While the present scheme is designed to mimic the behavior of a cat, a living system at the organism level, the program has been designed to be flexible and open to indefinite expansion so as, potentially, to include more, and more complex, forms of specialized behavior representative of more interesting species. The simulation includes a dynamic display of the behaving animal on a color (or monochrome) monitor for “real-time” study and evaluation of its performance. To further this end, the model produces characteristic sounds and text to communicate the animal's motivation and experience at each instant. The entire simulation is extremely transportable and will easily fit into and run on the IBM family of PC's as well as most other IBM-compatible PC's. The Turbo Pascal source program is available on disk; for those lacking Turbo but using MS-DOS, a compiled machine-language version is included.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The general system consisting of the N-person, symmetric binary choice game can contain a large number of stable inegalitarian equilibria as discussed by the authors, although these equilibra are locally of a single type.
Abstract: The general system consisting of the N-person, symmetric binary choice game can contain a large number of stable inegalitarian equilibria, although these equilibria are locally of a single type. If symmetry is cardinal, and cardinal symmetry is interpreted to mean a common relation of all persons to the resources of society, the result implies the possibility of class division in a classless society. The same result bears on the N-person generalizations of the best-known 2-person games: Chicken, Prisoner's Dilemma, and the Assurance Game.