Showing papers in "Systems Research and Behavioral Science in 1993"

Greater than the sum of its parts II: matter-energy processing subsystems

Abstract: Behavioral science theory has changed greatly since 1978, when Miller's Living Systems was published. Much of the change represents progress, particularly in the biological fields. During that time, living systems theory (LST) developed in many ways. Among the most significant developments have been the addition of another level, the community, to the seven levels previously included in LST and the addition of another subsystem, the timer, to become the 20th subsystem. The present article is the second to be published in this journal which describe relatively briefly and simply the current state of scientific knowledge about the subsystems of living systems. It deals with the first six matter-energy processing subsystems, the ingestor, distributor, convertor, producer, matter-energy storage, and extruder.

Thinking intelligently about extraterrestrial intelligence: An application of living systems theory

Abstract: Recent developments in the physical and biological sciences suggest that the probability of intelligent life elsewhere in the Universe is sufficiently high as to justify a $100 million radio telescope search. The present paper suggests that despite the limits of our current knowledge we can still formulate useful working hypotheses about extraterrestrial intelligence. As we develop such hypotheses, we should remain within the framework of science and view the evolution of life and civilizations as orderly processes which proceed within broad natural limits. James G. Miller's Living System Theory (LST) provides a simple framework for disassembling and analyzing, in identical terms, systems of different sizes and complexity. A simplified version of LST involving three systems levels (organism, society, supranational system) and two basic processes (matter-energy processing and information processing) is applied to organize current thinking about extraterrestrial intelligence. It is concluded that LST's categories and principles will prove useful for comparative studies of terrestrial and extraterrestrial life forms and civilizations.

Applications of living systems theory to the study of management and organizational behavior

Abstract: Living systems theory provides an elegant and elaborate conceptual framework for studying the behavior of human organisms, groups, and organizations. It facilitates cross-level comparisons and analysis of interaction between systems at different levels. Miller (1978) generated many cross-level hypotheses that could be useful to management and organizational behavior theorists and researchers. Practitioners can gain much from a clearer understanding of the “living” nature of groups and organizations. This article reviews the literature of applications of living systems theory to the fields of management and organizational behavior, and provides many examples of benefits to researchers and managers.

Toward a social theory of psychiatric phenomena

Abstract: This essay relies on a positivistic/scientific perspective to define psychiatric phenomena. However, it draws a distinction between a biomedical versus a social science approach. The aim is to review some of the theoretical and empirical considerations that pertain to psychiatric phenomena that need to be addressed in order to develop a social theory about them. The object of the theory is to explain how psychiatric phenomena are labeled, interpreted, and handled across societies that differ in terms of social structure and culture. Some of the kinds of variables and questions that would allow for cross-cultural analyses are identified. In addition, two topics that a social theory could address--that of the medicalization and stigmatization of psychiatric phenomena--are introduced. These topics are elaborated by developing propositions that substantively illustrate the questions/hypotheses of a social theory of psychiatric phenomena. The essay illustrates that a social theory constitutes a complex enterprise that requires dealing with philosophical, methodological and empirical issues.

Analysis in man‐task system behavior studies

Abstract: Studies of man-task system behavior start with the obtaining of behavioral data. The recorded variables are generally numerous, can be objective and/or subjective and can be classified by their scale types. The next stage is to describe the behavior through a preprocessing technique in such a way that all variables have the same scale type. To achieve this goal, the qualitative scale is chosen but to lose as little information as possible from a quantitative to qualitative scale transformation, fuzzy categories are considered. The next stage is to analyze the resulting data set. A data set is considered through an observation X category table and studied using either the simple or multiple correspondence factor analysis. These methods yield both mathematical and descriptive behavior patterns. Their advantages are to not consider a priori too much constrained mathematical hypotheses and too much synthesized indicators (computed over the subject sample, for example). The general data analysis procedure (data characterizing/correspondence analysis) is described for four different data set types: judgments using quantitative scales, multidimensional signals, viewer behavior using eye movements, and operator behavior in tracking task.

Construction of concepts by the nervous system: from neurons to cognition.

Abstract: Neurophysiological studies have recently identified a pattern of synchronized slow-wave activity in the visual cortex which characteristically encompasses groups of neurons activated by similar or closely related stimulus attributes. This slow-wave activity appears to tag clusters of neurons to form aggregates representing in their totality more complex, higher-order stimulus attributes across disparate positions in the cortical representation. The notion is advanced that the function of these aggregates is analogous to that ascribed to the subsymbolic computational level in connectionist networks. On this basis, the argument is presented that the synchronized cortical activity is an important aspect of the construction of symbolic representation by the nervous system and, thus, a step from neural information processing to the symbolic processes stipulated by classical cognitivism.

Designing at a high level of abstraction

Abstract: In the early stages of project initiation, it is especially important to be able to represent at a high level of abstraction the functional requirements of a system being designed. This makes it possible for a design team to arrange and rearrange the essential functional components rapidly. This offers a means to explore the feasibility of different system configurations and to pose and answer “what-if” questions before the design is frozen. Similarly, if we are able to model processes associated with manufacture, then in a like manner we can explore the feasibility of different manufacturing systems. If the tools for modeling function and processes are compatible at a high level of abstraction, then we can also pose and answer “what-if” questions to understand the interaction between the design and its manufacturability. In this paper, we put forward some ideas that stem from living systems theory that could facilitate the development of these tools.

A new paradigm for software engineering

Abstract: A “software crisis,” identified more than twenty years ago, still exists today. This article discusses how that embarrassing predicament may now be relieved using a living systems model (LSM). The LSM with its critical subsystems and other crucial key concepts can form a very powerful conceptual tool in the software engineering process of specifying and designing computer programs. The proposed method can be seen as an extension of the object-oriented approaches currently in use. The LSM also can form a contextual ramification for the supported system, the programming system and the programmed system, with their obvious interdependencies.

Prescience or serendipity? Parallelism in living systems theory and modern sociological theory

Abstract: During the 1950s and 1960s, Parsonian functionalist systems theory was the dominant theory in American sociology. Since that time, the systems perspective has waned in sociology. Functionalism was widely critiqued, and no other systems theory has emerged (until recently) within sociology to take its place. However, there are still remnants of systems theory in contemporary sociological theory, and still some interest in the perspective. In fact, there are major points of congruence between prominent aspects of contemporary social theory and the “new” systems theories such as Living Systems Theory (LST), social entropy theory and autopoietic theory. There is also a great deal of interest in micro-macro linkages among contemporary sociological theorists. The purpose of this paper is to integrate LST and contemporary sociological theory. I will show that both approaches have a number of points in common, such as emphases on time, space, process, structure, and concrete systems. In addition to this basic congruence, I will also show that LST covers a number of areas not sufficiently dealt with in contemporary sociological theory, thus adding breadth and richness to it. Among the important contributions made by LST that are either entirely missing or relatively neglected in contemporary sociological theory are the analyses of types of systems (abstracted, concrete, conceptual), the 20 subsystems, the eight levels, the concept of organizational pathology, the study of information-input overload, and the concept of a social marker. Thus, I will demonstrate that LST and contemporary sociological theory are congruent in many ways, and compatible or complementary in many others. There are no or few real points of conflict between them. The major problem to date is that so few sociologists have a working knowledge of LST. Social theorists can benefit greatly from an understanding of LST, and this integration of LST and contemporary sociology is designed to, among other things, further that goal. Specifically, I will integrate LST with key mainstream sociological theories including Alexander's neofunctionalism, Giddens' structuration theory, and Collins' conflict theory.

A power index for multistage and multiagent decision systems

Abstract: An index of power is proposed, based on the concept of the entropy of information, which measures the distribution of power among decision makers who commit themselves at distinctive stages in the hierarchical decision systems. The index is tested and is shown to work well with a model of public decision-making in an indirect democracy. Moreover, it is shown that the entropy decreases monotonically in hierarchical and sequential decision systems. This property indicates support for the applicability of the index.

Purpose‐oriented living systems analysis

Abstract: Living systems theory, created by J. G. Miller, classifies living systems in eight levels, each of which consists of twenty critical subsystems. Breakthrough thinking, originated by G. Nadler and S. Hibino, states that seven principles accompany breakthrough thinking. These two general conceptual systems can be used together and the synergetic effect of their combination will yield a better result in understanding the nature of decisions and actions taken by living systems. It also encourages every living system not to be reductionistic or seek short-term solutions for the problems that they face. The combination of these two systems is termed purposeoriented living systems analysis (POLSA). An application of POLSA is described.

Musical self‐image and cultural change: Lithuanian minority in poland case study

Abstract: The paper deals with living systems at the social and individual levels of analysis. We examine the individual's perception of membership in an ethnically defined social group, in particular the hypotheses regarding the implicit definitions of one's own social group elicited from the negatives of perceived differences from members of other groups. The specific hypotheses concern the relationship between the perceived differences and the geographical distance to the group. These hypotheses were tested on the material collected from evaluations of Lithuanian folk songs from various regions by Lithuanian minority in Poland. In addition to the results being generalizable to other ethnic groups, and to perception not restricted to songs but also concerning other aspects of culture (allowing mostly categorical judgments), the results are of interest because of the statistical methodology used, which involves resampling techniques for categorical data.