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Showing papers in "Systems Research and Behavioral Science in 1997"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Habermas has developed an evolutionary architectonic that accords a role to systems theory as mentioned in this paper, but he continues to voice objections and reservations about systems theory and Luhmann in particular, and his criticisms need to be seen in their narrow context and brought into general conversation with the wide sweep of contemporary systems thinking.
Abstract: The Habermas/Luhmann debate centers on two questions. One is theoretical and one ethical. The theoretical question is: Can social processes be explained in primarily systemic terms? The ethical question is: What does reliance upon systems theory do to an advanced industrial society? Since the original debate, Habermas has developed an evolutionary architectonic that accords a role to systems theory. He continues, however, to voice objections and reservations about systems theory and Luhmann in particular. His criticisms need to be seen in their narrow context and brought into general conversation with the wide sweep of contemporary systems thinking. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

136 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The shift of paradigms has taken place in various disciplines in their historical development and a third wave of development is now becoming eminent with the generation of continua from thesis to antithesis, and that is of synthesis of the thesis and antithesis as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: The shift of paradigms has taken place in various disciplines in their historical development. In science, the paradigm has shifted from "classical mechanics' to "quantum-relativistic' paradigm over different stages and it is further evolving. Similarly in management, the paradigms have shifted on multiple planes, and the later paradigms have emerged as an "antithesis' of the traditional paradigm. A third wave of development is now becoming eminent with the generation of continua from thesis to antithesis, and that is of synthesis of the thesis and antithesis. It has been emphasized that such a synthesis, by exercising freedom of choice, exhibits "systemic flexibility', which is the basis of an evolving paradigm, namely flexible systems management. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

112 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The definition, applicability, and socio-technical foundations of virtual organization are elaborated and the nature and inner workings of this innovative approach to organization are focused on.
Abstract: Virtual organization is a way of structuring and managing goal-oriented activities. This innovative approach to organization is based on a categorical distinction between the requirements of a task and the elements capable of satisfying them. The distinction supports dynamic switching between satisfiers for the same requirement. Switching, used properly and systematically, can yield dramatic improvements in task performance. Although conceivable without computer communications, virtual organization would not be practicable without the technology; and the concept itself is closely related to constructs such as virtual memory and virtual reality. This paper is intended as a contribution to the development of a theory of virtual organization. The focus is on the nature and inner workings of this innovative approach to organization; social consequences are not considered here. Using the framework presented in an earlier article by the author, the definition, applicability, and socio-technical foundations of virtual organization are elaborated. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

103 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper summarizes the set of issues which should be explicit when designing a project which includes both SSM and other research approaches, and attempts to "place' SSM within a taxonomy of social science research approaches.
Abstract: Soft systems methodology (SSM) is well established as a vehicle for action research, particularly in programmes initiated at Lancaster University. It is now sufficiently well known, in academic circles at least, to be considered as a candidate methodology for a wide range of social science research projects. This paper summarizes (and updates) the set of issues which should be explicit when designing a project which includes both SSM and other research approaches. It attempts to "place' SSM within a taxonomy of social science research approaches, examines the contingencies which may determine the success and acceptance of the research, and explores the relationship between SSM components of such programmes and other, more traditional, approaches. A further important focus is the status of SSM products as theory, and the use of SSM for theory generation and/or testing. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

97 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The past cannot be changed and the future cannot be known (although structured by distinctions open for oscillation) because general systems theory shows that the combination of self-referential operations and operational closure generates a surplus of possible operations and therefore intransparency of the system for its own operation.
Abstract: General systems theory shows that the combination of self-referential operations and operational closure (or the re-entry of output as input) generates a surplus of possible operations and therefore intransparency of the system for its own operation. The system cannot produce a complete description of itself. It has to cope with its own unresolvable indeterminacy. To be able to operate under such conditions the system has to introduce time. It has to distinguish between its past and its future. It has to use a memory function that includes both remembering and forgetting. And it needs an oscillator function to represent its future. This means, for example, that the future has to be imagined as achieving or not achieving the goals of the system. Even the distinction of past and future is submitted to oscillation in the sense that the future can be similar to the past or not. In this sense the unresolvable indeterminacy or the intransparency of the system for itself can find a temporal solution. But this means that the past cannot be changed (although selectively remembered) and the future cannot be known (although structured by distinctions open for oscillation). © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

82 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, it is argued that root definitions define and induce dispositions, while the dispositions they induce are the source of the effects they have on the problem-solving practice.
Abstract: In a previous paper the authors argued that the line dividing the ‘real world’ from the ‘systems thinking world’ in Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) should be disregarded lest it be taken to indicate a false dualism. One of the supporting reasons for the elimination of this line was the problem that arose in practice concerning the link between root definitions and conceptual models, constantly encountered during the 25 years in which SSM has been used and developed. The relationship between root definitions and conceptual models was taken to be based only on an instrumental ‘logic’. Here it is argued that root definitions define and induce dispositions. The dispositions root definitions define are expressed in terms of conceptual models, while the dispositions they induce are the source of the effects they have on the problem-solving practice. In this way, the sole dependency on instrumental logic as the link between the two is loosened, allowing different forms of relationship between the two to emerge, including ones linked more closely to the evolving content of a systems study. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

70 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Systems science is a field of inquiry in the field of human-related studies as mentioned in this paper, and it can be seen as a complementary field to the humanities in terms of its ability to deal with increasing systemic complexities, rapid societal changes, and design decisions that affect the sustainable evolution of human societies within the wider context of their life support systems.
Abstract: This article presents the systems sciences as a field of inquiry and discusses the way in which it has evolved in relation to the humanities. Following a brief historical overview and assessment of the systems sciences by considering their origins and foundations in general system thinking, the review highlights the key players and the major trends in the field, and leads to a consideration of the ways in which it complements and contrasts the methods of human-related studies generally pursued in the humanities. It discusses the potential for the systems sciences to enrich descriptive, instructional, and explanatory orientations of contemporary Geisteswissenschaften through the inclusion of normative considerations. The normative component of the systems sciences is considered within an evolutionary framework that presents holism as a methodology for understanding the dynamics of complex "real-world' (ontological) systems and suggests action imperatives for their viable and sustainable design over time. Through the tools metaphor, modeling and simulation, interactive design and other praxes, systems scientists investigate the goals and ends of systems and their interactions within environments shared with, and provided for, one another. In this way social systems in general, and human activity systems in particular, can be described as a function of their degree of purposefulness in terms of the role of human values in concrete circumstances. Through the tools of systems analysis and design, systems science represents the world of symbols, values, social entities, and cultures as embedded in an embracing order of hierarchies that bridges the gap between C. P. Snow's "Two Cultures' of the sciences and the humanities. The use of modeling in systems sciences provides the language of design and the means by which creativity is applied in the course of inventing, making, assessing, and implementing the designs. In this way it lends to the humanities the capability to deal with increasing systemic complexities, rapid societal changes, and design decisions that affect the sustainable evolution of human societies within the wider context of their life support systems. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

44 citations



Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, two examples of systems typologies in the light of the theory of autopoiesis are considered, one based on Boulding's classic typology of types of systems based on their degree of complexity and the other based on the types of relations upon which the different levels depend.
Abstract: This paper considers two examples of systems typologies in the light of the theory of autopoiesis. The first is Boulding's classic typology of types of systems based on their degree of complexity. Certain inconsistencies are noted, but the main problem is that there is no definition of the underlying scale of systems complexity. The paper suggests that the underlying dimension can be seen as the types of relations upon which the different levels depend. This also allows the inconsistencies to be clarified. The second typology, presented for the first time, provides an initial classification of different types of self-referential or organizationally closed systems. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

34 citations



Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a second-order cybernetics perspective of organizations is adopted to deal with power as a phenomenon which emerges in the operational and observational distinctions during interactions mediated by language, and a generic linguistic force, namely a command, concealed in any speech act, is considered responsible for the detachment (distinction) of a part from the whole, and thus, from its reduction to the role of subject or object.
Abstract: Power in organizations is usually regarded as a phenomenon generated by their structural features, or by existing social relationships. By sharing the ideas of Habermas and Foucault, critical systems thinking endeavours to offer an understanding of power based on its dialectical nature. Power is thus conceived as a coercive yet positive force, able to trigger resistance and emancipation. This paper proposes that critical systems thinking ought to link power with action in an analytical framework based on a systems perspective of organizations. By adopting a second-order cybernetics perspective of organizations, the paper deals with power as a phenomenon which emerges in the operational and observational distinctions during interactions mediated by language. A generic linguistic force, namely a command, concealed in any speech act, is considered responsible for the detachment (distinction) of a part from the whole, and thus, alternatively, from its reduction to the role of subject or object. According to this view, more attention should be paid to the fears felt by human beings when confronting their subjectivity, than to the fears felt in response to the repression of their subjectivity, as established theories of power suggest. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors proposed that information processing at the individual level gives rise to cover-up hypotheses which are then supported by delays, errors, omissions and other symptoms of information overload at the organizational level.
Abstract: Cover-up theories are popular beliefs that powerful governmental agencies prevent the public from receiving full, accurate, and detailed explanations of real or imagined events. Drawing on Kruglanski's theory of lay epistemics and J. G. Miller's analysis of information overload, we propose that information processing at the individual level gives rise to cover-up hypotheses which are then "supported' by delays, errors, omissions and other symptoms of information overload at the organizational level. This interplay of psychological and organizational variables is illustrated in beliefs that the US government is suppressing the truth about the John F. Kennedy assassination and is withholding evidence that unidentified flying objects (UFOs) are "real' and under the control of intelligent extraterrestrial beings. We identify individual differences that might be linked to the acceptance or rejection of cover-up notions and outline steps that organizations may take to minimize their own contributions to the misattribution processes. A huge and expanding glut of ambiguous evidence coupled with selective perception and biased assimilation make the Kennedy assassination and UFO controversies impossible to resolve. © 1996 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors explore the question of appropriate methodologies for use in the context of evaluation in the social policy arena, and present a critical analysis of a particular strategy for evaluation arising from within the systems tradition, namely contingency based approaches.
Abstract: This paper explores the question of appropriate methodologies for use in the context of evaluation in the social policy arena. Evaluation in such contexts is characterised by the need to work in situations exhibiting a high degree of heterogeneity. The paper begins by presenting a critical analysis of a particular strategy for evaluation arising from within the systems tradition, namely contingency based approaches. It then presents an alternative way of approaching evaluation, which we have found particularly valuable for use where a high degree of variety exists. The pluralist strategy described is based on acknowledging and respecting difference and then working with it, rather than rationalising it away through seeking a "common' position. Elements of this strategy for evaluation will be illustrated with examples two case studies, in Belize and London. © 1996 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the role of money-information markers in recurring organization and disorganization of social entities is identified as an important aspect of social entropy, and a discussion integrates living systems theory, social entropy theory, and macro accounting theory.
Abstract: Entropy is a measure of system disorganization. This article discusses how entropy occurs and is measured in physical, biological and social systems, with particular emphasis on social systems. The role of money-information markers in the recurring organization and disorganization of social entities is identified as an important aspect of social entropy. The discussion integrates living systems theory, social entropy theory, and macro accounting theory. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, two logically opposed interpretations of the meaning of current (soft and critical) systems thinking are drawn: thinking about the holistic power structure that constitutes the ground for the possibility of a situation and thinking how to accommodate conflicting parties into a given order.
Abstract: Two logically opposed interpretations of the meaning of current (soft and critical) systems thinking are drawn: thinking about the holistic power structure that constitutes the ground for the possibility of a situation and thinking how to accommodate conflicting parties into a given order. The epochal coexistence of these two apparently logically opposed modes of thinking are interpreted under an historical-ontological perspective. It is shown how the failure of the project of the Enlightenment has led to the constitution of a postmodern order dominated by instrumental thinking and absolute relativism, which sometimes disguises itself under the mask a few key notions of the project of the Enlightenment that rapidly become nothing but “plastic words” in-forming the mass-media publicity game.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, an IS strategic planning framework is developed whereby the debating and design issues necessary to the success of IS strategy may be combined, and the whole aligned with corporate strategy.
Abstract: In this paper, information systems (IS) strategic planning is assessed from a theoretical perspective, and related to organizational change. Based on the proposition that information systems is a domain which spans both the interpretivist and functionalist paradigms, an IS strategic planning framework is developed whereby the debating and design issues necessary to the success of IS strategy may be combined, and the whole aligned with corporate strategy. A complementarist approach to IS strategy formulation, and future development based on critical social theory is recommended. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors explore possibilities to overcome hypermobility, which implies a challenge for systems thinking and government policy, and suggest that problems of sustainability, accessibility and the quality of life may be viewed not only as limits to the expansion of mobility but also as symptoms of a distorted development affecting the overall quality of the transportation system itself.
Abstract: Modern concepts of time, space and man have stimulated the development of mobility as a means of enhancing access to social places. In the current development, however, a tendency towards hypermobility is observable. Hypermobility is excessive mobility that impacts negatively on the actual functioning of the transportation system. Problems of sustainability, accessibility and the quality of life may be viewed not only as limits to the expansion of mobility but also as symptoms of a distorted development affecting the quality of the transportation system itself. In exploring possibilities to overcome hypermobility, this paper implies a challenge for systems thinking and government policy. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors deal with the concept that for the success of the transition in Central and Eastern Europe the canonic business economics theory underlying transitional processes is not enough, because its paradigm is exhausted in many ways, and because it deals only with economic subsystems.
Abstract: This paper deals with the concept that for the success of the transition in Central and Eastern Europe the canonic business economics theory underlying transitional processes is not enough, because its paradigm is exhausted in many ways, and because it deals only with economic subsystem. For these countries to come to the same footings with the rest of the developed world we need a more holistic approach, to employ systems thinking, and with the help of the law of requisite variety, to try to think and act beyond markets, hierarchies and ownership. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.





Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors assume that the relationship between capitalism and democracy has been mediated by the strength of markets in the successful developing countries, and it can be assumed that there are complex feedback loops between market and democracy in capitalist systems.
Abstract: Modern democracy has existed only in countries with economic systems in which production and distribution are mainly carried on by privately owned enterprises that are strongly oriented toward markets. Though not all capitalist countries are or have been democratic, all democratic countries have had capitalist economies. It is assumed that the degree to which the economy is market oriented mediates the relationship between capitalism and democracy. In this sense I assume that the relationship between capitalism and democracy has been mediated by the strength of markets in the successful developing countries. In this paper it can be assumed that there are complex feedback loops between market and democracy in capitalist systems. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.




Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors argue that the reasons for the collapse of state socialism are traceable to the institutional design of the system, which provides no capacity for self-transformation, depletes developmental potential, and curtails system capacity.
Abstract: Why has the state socialist system collapsed? This paper argues that the reasons are traceable to the institutional design of state socialism, which provides no capacity for self-transformation, depletes developmental potential, and curtails system capacity. The state socialist system lacks the ability to "reform itself' in order to improve its adaptive capacity in rapidly changing external and internal environments. All actions meant to fulfil societal aspirations and rational attempts to stimulate economic performance run counter to the ideological foundations of state socialism. Therefore the system lacks the capacity for self-transformation that is needed to sustain the system in the changing environment. The process of information gathering and allocation of resources based on the bureaucratic mechanism of state socialism curtails the system's ability to enforce its preferences. In addition, the state socialist system features soft budget constraints and an investment hunger mechanism which deplete its developmental potential and make the system lose capacity. Thus this paper suggests that the origin of the breakdown of state socialism should be sought in its institutional design. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a reading of Kant provides a conceptual and epistemological framework to refine the modern inquiring system, in particular, as it pertains to the ability of the measurement function to evaluate the abstract attributes of inexact-soft domains which are so prevalent in the social and system sciences.
Abstract: Immanuel Kant's (1790) Critique of Judgment is a manual on aesthetics. It contains many references on the uses of quantitative and qualitative functions. Thus, a reading of Kant provides a conceptual and epistemological framework to refine the modern inquiring system, in particular, as it pertains to the ability of the measurement function to evaluate the abstract attributes of inexact-soft domains which are so prevalent in the social and system sciences. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors describe internal selection and hierarchy as two novelties with respect to physics that give access to mental systems capable of transforming real behaviours into symbolic messages and vice versa; orders created in mental time then constitute transmissible representations endowed with meaning.
Abstract: Morphodynamics accounts for the evolution and the creation of order in living matter on the model set up by physics to explain evolution and order in inert matter. According to physics, transformations and ordering in systems of particles are closely bound to passing time. The model thus leads to the definition of specific components and time to describe the dynamics of living matter. Ensembles of such components then are apt to set up functional orders built on scales of the specific time, and scales are fixed by interactions between components. However, two novelties appear with respect to physics: internal selection and hierarchy. They give access to mental systems capable of transforming real behaviours into symbolic messages and vice versa; orders created in the mental time then constitute transmissible representations endowed with meaning. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.